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Decks by Rigel Arcturus (1)
Turkish Historyexam due tomrw
Social Structure of the Ottoman Empire
The millet system: religious-based communities
Millets included Orthodox, Armenian, and Jewish communities
Each millet had its own leader and practiced its own religion
Non-Muslims had to be part of a millet to be considered citizens of the empire
The Orthodox millet was the largest, consisting of various language groups
Armenian and Jewish millets also existed
New millets, such as Bulgarians, were created in the 19th century
Reforms and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire
French Revolution had both positive and negative effects on the Ottoman Empire
Tulip Era (early 18th century) marked the first attempts at modernization
Selim III (1789-1807) introduced systematic reforms in the Ottoman State
Mahmut II (1808-1839) implemented comprehensive reforms in education, administration, military, social life, and economy
Serbia gained autonomy in 1815, followed by Greece's independence
Mahmut II witnessed the revolt of Ali Pasha of Ioannina and Cavallan Mehmet Ali Pasha
Reforms included the establishment of a new military structure and the removal of Divan organization
Post organization and the first official journal were founded, and educational reforms were implemented
Mahmut II's reforms paved the way for the Tanzimat reforms
Economic difficulties arose, including the Convention of Baltalimanı with Great Britain, which opened up the Ottoman market to British trade
Title: Tanzimat Period (1839-1876) Reforms
Tanzimat means regulation, organization and reform.
Tanzimat period begins with the Tanzimat Fermanı (Tanzimat Decree).
Reasons for Tanzimat reforms were to modernize the Ottoman Empire and secure its territorial integrity.
The program of Tanzimat focused on keeping together the Ottoman subjects, particularly non-Muslims.
Tanzimat Edict was created by Mustafa Reşit Paşa and involved new rights and promises.
Targeted reforms included providing security for lives and properties of Ottoman subjects, equality among all subjects, reorganization of civil and criminal codes, abolishing slavery and slave trade, and arrangements about taxes.
Ottoman Empire Reforms: Tanzimat and Islahat
Tanzimat reforms aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and establish equality between all subjects
Crimean War in 1853-1856 made the Ottoman Empire dependent on England and France, leading to the Islahat Edict
Islahat Edict was a result of Western pressure and aimed to carry out the promises of Tanzimat
The status of non-Muslims was more significant in Islahat, with limited authority for millet leaders
Reforms included the implementation of laws from European countries, establishment of courts, and educational reforms
Financial difficulties, opposition from Great Powers, and rise of nationalism undermined Ottoman modernization
Empire declared bankruptcy in 1875
Tanzimat period was driven by the ideology of Ottomanism and had influential ideologists such as Namık Kemal and Ziya Paşa
Ottoman Reforms and the First Constitutional Era
The Islahat Edict of 1856 was a result of Western pressure on the Ottoman Empire following the Crimean War.
Tanzimat reforms aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and provide equal rights to all subjects.
The financial difficulties caused by the Crimean War and opposition from the Great Powers undermined Ottoman modernization.
The Young Ottomans advocated for a constitutional monarchy and pushed for the declaration of the Kanun-i Esasi in 1876.
The Kanun-i Esasi was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire and established a more representative government.
The First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876-1878, during which the Ottoman Empire functioned under a constitutional government.
Major events during the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878 and its aftermath
The war broke out in April 1877 between the Ottoman Empire and Russia
Abdulhamit cancelled the Ottoman Parliament and constitution during the war
The Ayastefanos Agreement was signed after the war, but not accepted by Western countries
The Congress of Berlin was arranged where the Eastern Question, Armenian Question, and Macedonian Question were discussed for the first time
The Treaty of Berlin was signed at the end of the Congress, resulting in the rental of Cyprus to England, the establishment of three new states, and the loss of Ottoman control in the Balkans
England's foreign policy towards the Ottoman State shifted to no longer respect its territorial integrity
Abdulhamit Era Reforms
Reorganization of the Mulkiye
Establishment of commercial, veterinary, and art schools
Establishment of Darülfünun, the first university
Improvement of telegraph system
Establishment of railways from Syria to Palestine and from Ankara to Konya
Young Turk Revolution of 1908 and Committee of Union and Progress
Young Turks were mostly young, educated, and urban individuals who aspired to create a modern Turkish society based on European models.
They established the Ottoman Union as a secret organization in 1889.
In 1895, the committee was broken into small covert cells.
The committee gained prominence during the Armenian protests in 1895.
The first Young Turk Congress was organized by Prince Sabahattin in 1902.
Opposition against Abdulhamit increased after 1905, leading to the emergence of several secret organizations.
The second Young Turk Congress was held in 1907 and resulted in the formation of the Committee of Union and Progress.
The committee aimed to remove Abdulhamit from power through military resistance and cooperation with foreign countries.
The 1908 revolution was sparked by a revolt in Macedonia led by Resneli Niyazi and Enver with the support of the Rumelian people.
The revolution resulted in the reinstatement of the Kanun-i Esasi, or constitution, after 30 years.
Committee of Union and Progress
Organised the local and central congresses
Consisted of deputies in the Ottoman Parliament
Dual structure: Civil and military
Ideologies: Constitutional Era Ottomanism, Islamism, Turkism, Westernism
31st March Incident (1909)
Counter-coup attempt against the government
Led to the formation of the Army of Action
Mustafa Kemal was among the officers involved
Resulted in the deposition of Abdulhamit and restoration of constitutional monarchy
Tripolitanian (Trablusgarp) War of 1911
Conflict between Italy and the Ottoman Empire
Italy sought control of Tripolitania in North Africa
Tripolitania was important for resources and trade
The Tripolitanian War and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913)
The Tripolitanian War (1911):
The war began when Italy attempted to establish its presence in Europe through colonial possessions in Tripolitania.
Ottoman resistance was diminished due to the need to defend against potential Balkan attacks and Italian control of the seas.
Ottoman volunteers, including Enver, Mustafa Kemal, and Ali Fethi, led a native Libyan guerrilla resistance against the Italian invasion.
Ottoman State lost its last territory in North Africa through the Oushy Peace Agreement.
The First Balkan War (1912):
Balkan countries formed alliances against the Ottoman State, resulting in the occupation of Edirne and Kırklareli by Bulgaria.
Albania gained independence, while the Ottoman State lost Aegean islands, Macedonia, East and West Thrace.
The defeat of the Ottoman State led to the rise of the Committee of Union and Progress through a coup.
The Albanian Revolt (1910):
Led by Muslims, the revolt emphasized national identity over religion, highlighting the limitations of Islamism in maintaining Ottoman unity.
The Second Balkan War (1913):
Sparked by Bulgarian expansion, Balkan countries formed an alliance against Bulgaria.
Ottoman State seized the opportunity to regain Edirne and Kırklareli from Bulgaria.
Bulgaria was defeated by Greece and Serbia, with Romania entering the war and occupying North Bulgarian territories (Dobruca).
The Tripolitanian War and Balkan Wars
The Tripolitanian War began in 1911 when Italy tried to establish a colonial presence in Tripolitania.
The Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Italian invasion due to defense forces being focused on the Balkans and Italian control of the seas.
Enver, Mustafa Kemal, and Ali Fethi led a guerrilla resistance against the Italians.
The Ottoman Empire requested an armistice and signed the Oushy Peace Agreement at the end of the war, losing its last territory in North Africa.
The Balkan Wars were caused by nationalism, the results of the Berlin Peace Conference, and the independence of Bulgaria in 1908.
Balkan countries formed alliances against the Ottoman Empire and attacked, leading to the loss of territories such as Edirne and Kırklareli.
Albania gained independence, and the Ottoman Empire experienced internal affairs issues.
The Second Balkan War occurred due to Bulgarian expansion, with the Ottoman Empire taking the opportunity to regain Edirne and Kırklareli.
Bulgaria was defeated by Greece and Serbia, and Romania entered the war, occupying North Bulgarian territories.
Agreements were signed between the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, as well as Greece.
The Unionists gained more power, Turkism ideology emerged, and Ottomanism declined.
Ottoman State's entry into the war
Ottoman State entered war as a supporter of the Central Powers in 1914
Ottoman-German Alliance Convention signed in August 1914
German warships Goeben and Breslav escaped British ships and handed over to Ottoman Empire
Goeben and Breslav bombarded Russian harbors in the Black Sea, leading to Russia declaring war on Ottoman Empire
Ottoman State declared Cihad-ı Ekber to Muslim communities under English control
Ottoman State's role in the war
Ottoman State fought primarily in the Caucasian Front against Russia
Enver Pasha launched Battle of Sarıkamış to recapture Batum and Kars, but suffered losses and did not achieve objectives
Ottoman's entry increased Triple Entente's military burdens, with Russia fighting alone in the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns
Ottoman State's entry significantly affected the course of the war and the alliances involved
Dardanelles Campaign
Battle of Gallipoli or Battle of Çanakkale
Major Allied failure
Ottoman victory
ANZAC involvement
Allied aim to control Istanbul
Ottoman success in Dardanelles led Bulgaria to join the war
Allied overland campaign towards Seddülbahir and Arıburnu
Mustafa Kemal's victory in that front
Ottoman campaign towards Suez Canal, no success
Armenian rebellions and Tehcir Law
The Ottoman Army's role in moving people for security reasons:
The Ottoman Army can relocate villagers or town residents in case of spying or treachery
Army commanders can intervene in case of offensive or disobedient behavior
Reasons for the migration of Armenians:
The law did not specifically mention Armenians, but their aggressive attitude and cooperation with the Allies led to their migration
Secret agreements between the Allies, such as the Istanbul Agreement, promised to share Ottoman territories
The Treaty of London in 1915 also included plans for the partition of the Ottoman Empire, including giving Antalya to Italy
The Sykes-Picot Agreement
In April 1916, a secret agreement was signed between England and France
Sir Mark Sykes and George Picot agreed on sharing the Ottoman Middle East territories
According to the agreement, France would get Syria, Lebanon, Kilikya (Çukurova) and Mosul
England would get Iraq, Jordan and North Palestine
England later acquired Mosul from France in exchange for a share of oil production
This agreement played a significant role in shaping the borders and divisions in the Middle East after World War I
The Ottoman Empire and the Bolshevik Revolution
Armistice of Erzincan signed on 5 December 1917 between the Russians and Ottomans, ending armed conflicts.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March, stipulating that Russia would give Batum, Kars, and Ardahan back to the Ottoman State.
The withdrawal of Russia changed the secret plans of the Allies.
Italy, England, and France signed the St Jean de Maurienne agreement in April 1917, with plans to give Izmir, Aydın, and Konya to Italy.
Balfour Declaration in 1917 supported the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.
Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917.
The Ottoman Empire and the Bolshevik Revolution
Armistice of Erzincan signed on 5 December 1917 between the Russians and Ottomans, ending armed conflicts.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March, stipulating that Russia would give Batum, Kars, and Ardahan back to the Ottoman State.
The withdrawal of Russia changed the secret plans of the Allies.
Italy, England, and France signed the St Jean de Maurienne agreement in April 1917, with plans to give Izmir, Aydın, and Konya to Italy.
Balfour Declaration in 1917 supported the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.
Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917.
Wilson's Fourteen Points
Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at
Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas
Removal of all economic barriers and establishment of trade equality
Reduction of national armaments
Impartial adjustment of colonial claims based on equal weight of population and government interests
Evacuation of all Russian territory and independent determination of political development and national policy
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
Open diplomacy and an end to secret treaties
Freedom of the seas
Removal of trade barriers
Reduction of armaments
Fair and impartial settlement of colonial claims
Self-determination for all nations, including those in the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Assistance for Russia in its transition to democracy
Evacuation and restoration of Belgium
Restoration of French territory and righting of the wrongs of Alsace-Lorraine
Readjustment of Italian frontiers based on nationality
Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary
Evacuation and restoration of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
Secure sovereignty for Turkish territories while ensuring security and autonomy for other nationalities under Turkish rule
Creation of an independent Polish state with access to the sea
Formation of a general association of nations to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity for all states.
Consequences of the First World War
Dissolution of central empires: Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany
Establishment of republics and breakdown of monarchies
Emergence of new countries: Soviet Union, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia
Social, economic, and political depressions in participating countries
Rise of totalitarian and authoritarian governments
First World War as a main cause of the Second World War
Consequences of the First World War
Dissolution of central empires: Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany
Establishment of republics and breakdown of monarchies
Emergence of new countries: Soviet Union, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia
Social, economic, and political depressions in participating countries
Rise of totalitarian and authoritarian governments
First World War as a main cause of the Second World War(0)(1)(1)