Turkish History

Social Structure of the Ottoman Empire The millet system: religious-based communities Millets included Orthodox, Armenian, and Jewish communities Each millet had its own leader and practiced its own religion Non-Muslims had to be part of a millet to be considered citizens of the empire The Orthodox millet was the largest, consisting of various language groups Armenian and Jewish millets also existed New millets, such as Bulgarians, were created in the 19th century Reforms and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire French Revolution had both positive and negative effects on the Ottoman Empire Tulip Era (early 18th century) marked the first attempts at modernization Selim III (1789-1807) introduced systematic reforms in the Ottoman State Mahmut II (1808-1839) implemented comprehensive reforms in education, administration, military, social life, and economy Serbia gained autonomy in 1815, followed by Greece's independence Mahmut II witnessed the revolt of Ali Pasha of Ioannina and Cavallan Mehmet Ali Pasha Reforms included the establishment of a new military structure and the removal of Divan organization Post organization and the first official journal were founded, and educational reforms were implemented Mahmut II's reforms paved the way for the Tanzimat reforms Economic difficulties arose, including the Convention of Baltalimanı with Great Britain, which opened up the Ottoman market to British trade Title: Tanzimat Period (1839-1876) Reforms Tanzimat means regulation, organization and reform. Tanzimat period begins with the Tanzimat Fermanı (Tanzimat Decree). Reasons for Tanzimat reforms were to modernize the Ottoman Empire and secure its territorial integrity. The program of Tanzimat focused on keeping together the Ottoman subjects, particularly non-Muslims. Tanzimat Edict was created by Mustafa Reşit Paşa and involved new rights and promises. Targeted reforms included providing security for lives and properties of Ottoman subjects, equality among all subjects, reorganization of civil and criminal codes, abolishing slavery and slave trade, and arrangements about taxes. Ottoman Empire Reforms: Tanzimat and Islahat Tanzimat reforms aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and establish equality between all subjects Crimean War in 1853-1856 made the Ottoman Empire dependent on England and France, leading to the Islahat Edict Islahat Edict was a result of Western pressure and aimed to carry out the promises of Tanzimat The status of non-Muslims was more significant in Islahat, with limited authority for millet leaders Reforms included the implementation of laws from European countries, establishment of courts, and educational reforms Financial difficulties, opposition from Great Powers, and rise of nationalism undermined Ottoman modernization Empire declared bankruptcy in 1875 Tanzimat period was driven by the ideology of Ottomanism and had influential ideologists such as Namık Kemal and Ziya Paşa Ottoman Reforms and the First Constitutional Era The Islahat Edict of 1856 was a result of Western pressure on the Ottoman Empire following the Crimean War. Tanzimat reforms aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire and provide equal rights to all subjects. The financial difficulties caused by the Crimean War and opposition from the Great Powers undermined Ottoman modernization. The Young Ottomans advocated for a constitutional monarchy and pushed for the declaration of the Kanun-i Esasi in 1876. The Kanun-i Esasi was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire and established a more representative government. The First Constitutional Era lasted from 1876-1878, during which the Ottoman Empire functioned under a constitutional government. Major events during the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1878 and its aftermath The war broke out in April 1877 between the Ottoman Empire and Russia Abdulhamit cancelled the Ottoman Parliament and constitution during the war The Ayastefanos Agreement was signed after the war, but not accepted by Western countries The Congress of Berlin was arranged where the Eastern Question, Armenian Question, and Macedonian Question were discussed for the first time The Treaty of Berlin was signed at the end of the Congress, resulting in the rental of Cyprus to England, the establishment of three new states, and the loss of Ottoman control in the Balkans England's foreign policy towards the Ottoman State shifted to no longer respect its territorial integrity Abdulhamit Era Reforms Reorganization of the Mulkiye Establishment of commercial, veterinary, and art schools Establishment of Darülfünun, the first university Improvement of telegraph system Establishment of railways from Syria to Palestine and from Ankara to Konya Young Turk Revolution of 1908 and Committee of Union and Progress Young Turks were mostly young, educated, and urban individuals who aspired to create a modern Turkish society based on European models. They established the Ottoman Union as a secret organization in 1889. In 1895, the committee was broken into small covert cells. The committee gained prominence during the Armenian protests in 1895. The first Young Turk Congress was organized by Prince Sabahattin in 1902. Opposition against Abdulhamit increased after 1905, leading to the emergence of several secret organizations. The second Young Turk Congress was held in 1907 and resulted in the formation of the Committee of Union and Progress. The committee aimed to remove Abdulhamit from power through military resistance and cooperation with foreign countries. The 1908 revolution was sparked by a revolt in Macedonia led by Resneli Niyazi and Enver with the support of the Rumelian people. The revolution resulted in the reinstatement of the Kanun-i Esasi, or constitution, after 30 years. Committee of Union and Progress Organised the local and central congresses Consisted of deputies in the Ottoman Parliament Dual structure: Civil and military Ideologies: Constitutional Era Ottomanism, Islamism, Turkism, Westernism 31st March Incident (1909) Counter-coup attempt against the government Led to the formation of the Army of Action Mustafa Kemal was among the officers involved Resulted in the deposition of Abdulhamit and restoration of constitutional monarchy Tripolitanian (Trablusgarp) War of 1911 Conflict between Italy and the Ottoman Empire Italy sought control of Tripolitania in North Africa Tripolitania was important for resources and trade The Tripolitanian War and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) The Tripolitanian War (1911): The war began when Italy attempted to establish its presence in Europe through colonial possessions in Tripolitania. Ottoman resistance was diminished due to the need to defend against potential Balkan attacks and Italian control of the seas. Ottoman volunteers, including Enver, Mustafa Kemal, and Ali Fethi, led a native Libyan guerrilla resistance against the Italian invasion. Ottoman State lost its last territory in North Africa through the Oushy Peace Agreement. The First Balkan War (1912): Balkan countries formed alliances against the Ottoman State, resulting in the occupation of Edirne and Kırklareli by Bulgaria. Albania gained independence, while the Ottoman State lost Aegean islands, Macedonia, East and West Thrace. The defeat of the Ottoman State led to the rise of the Committee of Union and Progress through a coup. The Albanian Revolt (1910): Led by Muslims, the revolt emphasized national identity over religion, highlighting the limitations of Islamism in maintaining Ottoman unity. The Second Balkan War (1913): Sparked by Bulgarian expansion, Balkan countries formed an alliance against Bulgaria. Ottoman State seized the opportunity to regain Edirne and Kırklareli from Bulgaria. Bulgaria was defeated by Greece and Serbia, with Romania entering the war and occupying North Bulgarian territories (Dobruca). The Tripolitanian War and Balkan Wars The Tripolitanian War began in 1911 when Italy tried to establish a colonial presence in Tripolitania. The Ottoman Empire was unable to resist the Italian invasion due to defense forces being focused on the Balkans and Italian control of the seas. Enver, Mustafa Kemal, and Ali Fethi led a guerrilla resistance against the Italians. The Ottoman Empire requested an armistice and signed the Oushy Peace Agreement at the end of the war, losing its last territory in North Africa. The Balkan Wars were caused by nationalism, the results of the Berlin Peace Conference, and the independence of Bulgaria in 1908. Balkan countries formed alliances against the Ottoman Empire and attacked, leading to the loss of territories such as Edirne and Kırklareli. Albania gained independence, and the Ottoman Empire experienced internal affairs issues. The Second Balkan War occurred due to Bulgarian expansion, with the Ottoman Empire taking the opportunity to regain Edirne and Kırklareli. Bulgaria was defeated by Greece and Serbia, and Romania entered the war, occupying North Bulgarian territories. Agreements were signed between the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, as well as Greece. The Unionists gained more power, Turkism ideology emerged, and Ottomanism declined. Ottoman State's entry into the war Ottoman State entered war as a supporter of the Central Powers in 1914 Ottoman-German Alliance Convention signed in August 1914 German warships Goeben and Breslav escaped British ships and handed over to Ottoman Empire Goeben and Breslav bombarded Russian harbors in the Black Sea, leading to Russia declaring war on Ottoman Empire Ottoman State declared Cihad-ı Ekber to Muslim communities under English control Ottoman State's role in the war Ottoman State fought primarily in the Caucasian Front against Russia Enver Pasha launched Battle of Sarıkamış to recapture Batum and Kars, but suffered losses and did not achieve objectives Ottoman's entry increased Triple Entente's military burdens, with Russia fighting alone in the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns Ottoman State's entry significantly affected the course of the war and the alliances involved Dardanelles Campaign Battle of Gallipoli or Battle of Çanakkale Major Allied failure Ottoman victory ANZAC involvement Allied aim to control Istanbul Ottoman success in Dardanelles led Bulgaria to join the war Allied overland campaign towards Seddülbahir and Arıburnu Mustafa Kemal's victory in that front Ottoman campaign towards Suez Canal, no success Armenian rebellions and Tehcir Law The Ottoman Army's role in moving people for security reasons: The Ottoman Army can relocate villagers or town residents in case of spying or treachery Army commanders can intervene in case of offensive or disobedient behavior Reasons for the migration of Armenians: The law did not specifically mention Armenians, but their aggressive attitude and cooperation with the Allies led to their migration Secret agreements between the Allies, such as the Istanbul Agreement, promised to share Ottoman territories The Treaty of London in 1915 also included plans for the partition of the Ottoman Empire, including giving Antalya to Italy The Sykes-Picot Agreement In April 1916, a secret agreement was signed between England and France Sir Mark Sykes and George Picot agreed on sharing the Ottoman Middle East territories According to the agreement, France would get Syria, Lebanon, Kilikya (Çukurova) and Mosul England would get Iraq, Jordan and North Palestine England later acquired Mosul from France in exchange for a share of oil production This agreement played a significant role in shaping the borders and divisions in the Middle East after World War I The Ottoman Empire and the Bolshevik Revolution Armistice of Erzincan signed on 5 December 1917 between the Russians and Ottomans, ending armed conflicts. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March, stipulating that Russia would give Batum, Kars, and Ardahan back to the Ottoman State. The withdrawal of Russia changed the secret plans of the Allies. Italy, England, and France signed the St Jean de Maurienne agreement in April 1917, with plans to give Izmir, Aydın, and Konya to Italy. Balfour Declaration in 1917 supported the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917. The Ottoman Empire and the Bolshevik Revolution Armistice of Erzincan signed on 5 December 1917 between the Russians and Ottomans, ending armed conflicts. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March, stipulating that Russia would give Batum, Kars, and Ardahan back to the Ottoman State. The withdrawal of Russia changed the secret plans of the Allies. Italy, England, and France signed the St Jean de Maurienne agreement in April 1917, with plans to give Izmir, Aydın, and Konya to Italy. Balfour Declaration in 1917 supported the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies in 1917. Wilson's Fourteen Points Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas Removal of all economic barriers and establishment of trade equality Reduction of national armaments Impartial adjustment of colonial claims based on equal weight of population and government interests Evacuation of all Russian territory and independent determination of political development and national policy Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points Open diplomacy and an end to secret treaties Freedom of the seas Removal of trade barriers Reduction of armaments Fair and impartial settlement of colonial claims Self-determination for all nations, including those in the Austro-Hungarian Empire Assistance for Russia in its transition to democracy Evacuation and restoration of Belgium Restoration of French territory and righting of the wrongs of Alsace-Lorraine Readjustment of Italian frontiers based on nationality Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary Evacuation and restoration of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro Secure sovereignty for Turkish territories while ensuring security and autonomy for other nationalities under Turkish rule Creation of an independent Polish state with access to the sea Formation of a general association of nations to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity for all states. Consequences of the First World War Dissolution of central empires: Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany Establishment of republics and breakdown of monarchies Emergence of new countries: Soviet Union, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia Social, economic, and political depressions in participating countries Rise of totalitarian and authoritarian governments First World War as a main cause of the Second World War Consequences of the First World War Dissolution of central empires: Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany Establishment of republics and breakdown of monarchies Emergence of new countries: Soviet Union, Turkey, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia Social, economic, and political depressions in participating countries Rise of totalitarian and authoritarian governments First World War as a main cause of the Second World War

History