Section 1
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Alfred Nobel
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Cards (316)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Alfred Nobel
Inventor of dynamite. He established a fund, in 1901, called the Nobel Prize, which rewared and awknowledged people who worked for literary and scientific achievement and for peace. The prizes are still awarded today.
Florence Nightingale
British nurse whose emphasis on cleanliness and training for nurses revolutionized health care.
Charles Darwin
English scientist who suggested the theories of the survival of the fittest and of evolution. Author of The Origin of the Species.
Ludwig von Beethoven
He is most known for his powerful nine symphonies. He also introduced innovations in the type and number of instruments used in performances. (1770-1827)
carbonari
A network of secret societies in Italy that developed in the early 19th century to resist Napoleonic rule. Named after the charcoal mark inscribed on the foreheads of new members, the secret society played an important role in the development of Italian nationalism throughout the 19th century and were instrumental in Italian unification.
Alexander II
The Czar liberator who issued a proclamation "freeing" the serfs. However, he was assassinated in 1881.
Napoleon III
his extension of liberal rights such as worker unions and public works could not overcome his failures in foreign policy in Europe and Mexico
Garibaldi
Romantic Republic that desired the reformation of the Roman Republic; impacted by his experience in the Latin American Revolutions
Crimean War
Fought from 1853-56, this war pitted the Otoman Empire (backed by Britain, France, and Sardinia-Piedmont) against Russia. Russia wanted to extend into Ottoman-held territory, and Britain and France objected. Russia was defeated and all parties suffered significant casualties.
"The Irish Question"
The dispute initiated by Protestant Britain's takeover of Catholic Ireland in the 1700s and Britain's continued control of Northern Ireland has caused tension and violence between the two for centuries.
Realpolitik
Bismark's political policy of doing whatever is necessary to promote the power of the state.
Otto von Bismarck
Master of Realpolitick, was chancellor of Prussia from 1861-71. He was devoted to the Hohenzollerns (Prussian ruling family) and the unification of Germany, which occured in 1871. he continued to serve as Chancellor until he was fired in 1890 by William II.
Theodore Herzl
An austrailian journalist (1860-1904) who called for the creation of a Jewish homeland. This movement, called Zionism, spread throughout Europe and the United States.
Emmiline Pankhurst
Leader of the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union), which fought for women's sufferage in Britain.
Romanticism
An artistic movement in art, literature, and music popular in the nineteenth century. Mystic, exotic, and foreign topics were popular, as were ancient and medieval history and topics like the glroy of nature.
The Peterloo Massacre
In 1819 British troops sought to stop a peaceful meeting in Manchester. Citizens favoring more liberal government policies organized the meeting. Soldiers killed several in the unarmed crowd and hundreds were injured.
Great Hunger/Great Famine
Beginning in 1845, a severe blight struck the European potato crop. in Ireland, the results were devastating and millions died, with even more immigrating to Canada and the United States. The event is also so called the Potato Famine.
The Balkans
The region north of the Greek peninsula, home to various and frequently violent ethnic groups. WWI began here (Sarajevo) and it was the region of intense ethnic violence in the 1990s. Tension among Slavic people and between Christians and Muslims also have led to war.
Robert Owen
British idealist who believed that the industrial workers and owners needed to work cooperattively in order to create an ideal working and living situation.
Great Britain
this state stabilized with legislation such as the Reform Act of 1867 and Education Act of 1870
Corn Laws
Enacted in 1815, these laws protetced British agriculture by placing strict limits on the amount of foreign grain to be imported. They resulted in keeping basic food prices artificially high until their repeal in 1846.
Count Camillo di Cavour
Prime Minister to Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont. Although he considered himself liberal, he was willing to use deception to promote national goals.
George Hegel
German philosopher and author. A believer in universal consciousness, he also held that history was a goal-driven process. A part of this was the "dialectic." He lived from 1770-1831.
William Morris
Founder of the Arts and Crafts movement. This movement rejected mass production of products and sought to revitalize careful hand production of goods.
Metternich System
Established by the ultra-conservative Austrian chancellor. The system bearing his name sought to restore pre-Napoleonic rulers to theri thrones, restore the European balance of power, and repress liberal and democratic ideas. He was forced to resign in 1848.
Italy
Piedmont united this state
Second French Empire
created from a Romantic Nationalism created in a plebiscite in 1852
Utopian Socialism
This movement, a reaction to the incredible poverty to the industrial era, postulated that workers would live together in a clean, safe environment and work cooperatively. Frenchman Charles Fourier (1768-1837) was the author of this ideal.
Friedrich Nietzsche
German philosopher who rejected traditional rational philosophy. He claimed God was dead and that there were "supermen" who would come to govern and run socities over ordinary men. He died in 1889.
Friedrich Engels
He and Karl Marx coauthored The Communist Manifesto (1848), after which they continued to write about the need for work toward socialist changes. Engels was born in Germany in 1820 but lived most of his life in England. He died in 1895.
Carlsbad Decrees
Extremely repressive laws adopted in 1819 in Prussia and the German Confederation. The decrees were meant to discourage liberal views and movements.
Nicolas I
He became Czar of Russia in 1825 and was immediately faced with the Decembrist Revolt, which he crushed. He was a firm follower of autocracy and stressed conservative policies that forced many of Russia's liberal intellectuals to flee. He died in 1855.
Benjamin Disraeli
A great leader of Great Britain's Conservative Party, held office of Prime Minister in 1868 and again from 1874-80. He was a strong supporter of Britain's imperilaist ambitions, but also supported a policy of liberal social reforms.
Lord Byron
Was an important British Romantic poet. His works include "She walks in Beauty" and the unfinished "Don Juan." Many consider him to embody the spirit of Romanticism. He died from an illness contracted while in Greece, where he was supporting their independence movement.
Positivism
19th century school of thought which began in France and held that the scientific method could solve social ills. Leading thinkers were Count Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte
Paris Commune
After France's defeat in the Franco-Prusian War, the liberal National Guard rebuffed the Third Republic's effort to disarm them and formed an independent Paris, with it's own government. The conservative president of France, Adolph Thiers, sent more troops to capture Paris and a bloodbath ensued. Independent Paris was defeated.
Existentialism
The philosophical belief that the universe is unknowable. Numerous philosophers adopted this thesis, but they each reacted to it in different ways. Those involved in the movement include Soren Kierkegaard (considered the founder) and Jean-Paul Sartre.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian doctor credited as being the "father" of psychology. He studied and wrote extensively about the importance of dreams and developed psychoanalysis.
Realism
Was the artistic and literary school emphasizing the dignity of common people, doing common things.
Mary Shelley
Most famous for her novel, Frankenstein. Its message was that man should not try and imitate God or challenge nature.
Ottoman Empire
this shrinking state posed a problem for the BOP politics of Europe
Impressionism
Artistic style developed in France in the late 1800s that employed light, shadow, color, and varied brush strokes to leave the viewer with a more natural impression. Claude Monet, Mary Cassatt, and Auguste Renoir pioneered the style.
William Gladstone
One of Britain's great liberal leaders, he favored expanding political rights for British men. He served several times during the mid to late 1800s.
Enest Haeckel
This German philosopher, a believer of Darwinism, founded Monism, which postulates that humans are simply a part of nature. The Riddle of the Universe was published to wide acclaim.
Austria
"Germanization" of this Empire failed in gaining stability
cholera
An epidemic, usually fatal disease that appeared in the 1830s in Europe and Asia, reaching the US in 1849-50. It was caused by a waterborne bacterium that induced violent vomiting and diarrhea and left the skin blue, eyes sunken and dull, and hands and feet ice cold. Advances in sanitation led to its decline toward the end of the 19th century.
Quadruple Alliance
In 1814 a coalition of Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria met and agreed to restore the pre-Napoleonic balance of power as well as to restructure boundries.
Russia
the emancipation of serfs did not increase the urbanization of this state
Charles Dickens
One of the Birtiain's greatest novelists. His wroks often sought to show the suffering of the poor in industrial Britain. his works include Oliver Twist and David Copperfield.
Louis XVIII
Became King of France in 1814; the conservative Congress of Vienna restored him to power. He was the brother of Louis XVI and ruled as a constitutional monarch until his death in 1824.
Section 2
(50 cards)
Rape of Nanking
In late 1937, Japan defeated the Chinese city of Nanking. Chinese civilians were brutalized and thousands were killed. The event shocked Western powers and contributed to sanctions against Japan.
Victor Emmanuel II
first king of Italy
Jonas Salk
American doctor who invented the polio vaccine in 1953. Polio crippled and killed millions worldwide, and the successful vaccine virtually eliminated the scourage.
Danish War
saw a united Austro-Prussian force remove foreign influence from Germany
General Francisco Franco
In 1936 the Spanish Civil War began. Franco led the Fascists, fighting republican forces. In 1939, the Fascist forces won (with help from Italy and Germany). Franco ruled until his death in 1975.
"ethnic cleansing"
Euphemism given to genocide committed in the 1990s in former Yugoslavia. This was a Serbian policy directed against Muslims in the region. Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic was arrested and awaits tril at The Hague.
Disraeli
Conservative Prime Minister of Britain that led the way to the Reform Act of 1867
Bismarck
conservative realist who used war and diplomacy to unite Germany
Crimean War
Napleon III's only victory in foreign policy
Marshall Plan
After the masssive destruction in Europe following world War II, the United States proposed an economic plan in 1947 to help restore the region. Aid was providedto any European nation that promised cooperation (Soviet-bloc nations did not participate). The plan was very successful.
Alexander III
a repressive Czar who worked with Russian nobles to bring stability
Willaim I
became Kaiser of the German Empire in 1871
Enrico Fermi
One of the several important physicists of the twentieth century whose work led to the splitting of the atom. He also was instrumental in the Manhattan Project (development of the atomic bomb).
Count Cavour
liberal realist who utilized by diplomacy and war to unite the Kingdom of Italy
Palmerston
1850's Whig Prime Minister that led no reforms
European Community
The E.C., formed in 1970, was an outgrowth of the Common Market nations. European nations allied economically in order to compete against larger nations, such as the United States and Canada. Original members included Italy, England, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden.
Max Weber
German philosopher and author who founded the field of sociology. He also stressed the importance of the Protestant work ethic in industrial society.
Totalitarianism
Type of goverment in which the state is in almost complete control of its citizens' lives. Individual rights are virtually nonexistent; the welfare of the state is all-important. Stalin and Hitler are considered totalitarian rulers.
Einsatzgruppen
Nazi paramilitary groups (also called EGs) that operated in Eastern Europe. The goal was the murder of Jews, Communists, and others who opposed Germany. Millions were murdered.
Nuremberg Trials
After World War II, the victorious Allies convened a multinational judicial panel to try Nazis accused of crimes against humanity. Held in Nuremberg, Germany, the trials lasted from 1945-46. The highest-ranking Nazi tried was Hermann Goring, who committed suicide before his death sentence could be carried out.
Helsinki Accords - Helsinki Final Set
Meeting of the United States and most European nations in Helsinki to increase effots for mutual cooperation. Lasted from 1972-75. One important outcome was the agreement that existing political boundaries would not be altered by military force.
Winston Churchill
Held numerous government offices, but is most famous for his service as Prime Minister from 1940-45 and 1951-55. His stirring speeches and refusal to surrender during the darkest days of World War II inspired the free world. He adocated strengthening ties between the United States and Britain.
Great Depression
In 1929, the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange triggered a virtually worldwide financial crisis that came to be known as the Great Depression. Extensive trade barriers between industrial nations also contributed to the problem.
Franco-Prussian War
united Germany; ended Second French Empire
Austro-Prussian War
removed Austria from a unified Germany
Crimean War
this war saw Russian power checked by a Franco-British force
Austro-Prussian War
Napoleon III's failure to intervene in this war saw Prussia emerge as most powerful state on the Continent
Green Party
Political party that began during the later part of the twentieth century. exists in a number of western mations and represents many citizens wanting a political party that reflects environmental concerns.
Holocaust
The term means "burnt offering" and refers to the Nazi efforts (1933-45) to exterminate the Jews in Europe. Of the 11 million European Jews, 6 million were murdered.
Kellog-Briand Pact
Agreement proposed by American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg in 1927. An outgrowth of World War I, the pact denounced war as a way to resolve conflict and was enorsed by over 50 countries within 5 years.
"Iron Curtain"
This phrase, coined by Winston Churchill, in a 1946 speech, reffered to the dangers of the increasing Soviet control and domination of Eastern Europe.
Carl Jung
Swiss psychiatrist who ws noted for his work dealing with archetypes. He also believed in the theory of collective unconscious (this refers to a dimension of human subconscious that all members of a particular social group share).
Alexander II
assassinated by the People's Will, essentially ending any hope of autocratic reform in Russia
Balfour Declaration
Declaration issued in 1917 by the British Foreign Secretary, Sir A. Balfour, saying the British government would support a Jewish homeland.
Ivan Pavlov
Pavlov, using dogs, helped explain conditioning. He was a leader in the field of behavorism and psychology.
Francis Joseph I
signed Ausgleich in 1867 in hopes of bringing stability to his empire
Ho Chi Minh
Leader of the Vietnamese national opposition to French, Japanese, and American forces. He was the Communist leader of North Vietnam until his death in 1969.
Yalta Conference
In 1945, Stalin, Churchill, and Franklin Roosevelt met to discuss postwar issues. Stalin was the winner, gaining a pro-Soviet government in charge of Poland, the division of Germany, and teritory concessions in Asia as well.
Yuri A. Gagarin
A Russian cosmonauth who became the first man to orbit the earth in 1961.The Soviets' early successful space missions spurred the United States to increase their efforts in this field.
Alexander Herzen
called for "Land and Freedom" in Russia in hopes of an autocratic implosion leaving peasants to live in independent villages
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact was essentially the response of the USSR to the creation of NATO. The pact began in 1955, with european communist nations pledging mutual military support to one another. It ended with the collapse of the USSR in 1991.
Kaiser William II
Kaiser (German term for emperor who began ruling in 1888. He was determined to expand Gemrna influence and greatly increased the size of Germany's military. He led Germany into World War I and abdicated the throne in 1918.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
The Shi'ite leader who lef the Iranian 1979 revolution, overthrowing the pro-Western government of the Shah. Iran would become radically anti-Western under his leadership.
United Nations
During World War II, Allied leaders decided to establish an international organization devoted to promoting peace. The United nations was formally established in 1945.
Leonid Brezhnev
Leader of the Communiost Party and in effect the leader of the USSR from 1964 until his death in 1982. Insisted the Soviet bloc nations to defer to him. He also followed a policy of building up the Soviet military.
Maria Montessori
Italian physician who gained international fame for her philosophy of teaching, which allowed students to learn in a noncompetitive and relaxed atmosphere.
Truman Doctrine
The policy, begun in 1947, that the United States would not challenge existing Communist nations' right to exist, butwould actively and militarily oppose any further expansion of communism. This policy of containment was followed for decades.
Dawes Plan
After World War II, Germany was forced to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany was not able to keep up payments, and in 1924 an American, Charles Dawes, reorganized the repayment plan. The United States also made loans to Germany as part of the plan.
Berlin Airlift
After World War II, Berlin was divided into eastern and western sectors, with the USSR controlling the east and Britain, France, and the United States controling the west. From 1948--49, the Soviets used airplanes to supply West Berlin, and the USSR eventually ceased the blockade.
Austro-Piedmont War
united northern Italy
Section 3
(50 cards)
Vladamir Lenin
Lenin led the Bolshevik (Communist) Revolution in Russia in 1917. He would lead the Communists to victory in the Civil War and would rule until his death in 1924.
Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov)
leader of the Bolsheviks. family was nonhereditary nobility due to result of loyal service. got a law degree. Exiled to Siberia. Also exiled in Switzerland. Believed that Marxist analysis could be applied to the backwards Russia. Rejected all compromise. Instead of believing in social experiences of the workers, believed that only a small minority of workers would achieve consciousness and that they should join with intellectuals in a party that would direct the masses. Thought capitalism was ripe for a fall around the time of the war. Wanted to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat.
Pyotr Stolypin
named by Nicolas 2 as prime minister. Did undertake some rural reforms beginning in 1906
Mikhail Gorbachev
Became the leader of the USSR in 1985. He proposed major reforms and adopted policies of greater openness (glasnostand perestroika) and allowed Soveit-bloc states greater independence. In 1991, there wa an unsuccessful attemtped overthrow of his government. The USSR dissolved in 1991 with Gorbachev's resignation.
Bolsheviks
Russian for "majority." Lenin's faction of the Social Democratic Party in Russia, which seized power in October 1917. Unlike most Marxists, who stressed the power of laboring people, Lenin stressed that a highly disciplined socialist elite - rather than the working class as a whole - would lead Russia to socialism.
Revolution of 1905
ended in failure but there was a little reform although really it was still tsarist. Heightened divisions among exiled Russian socialists.
Menshiviks
the "minority;" those who believed that the proletariat revolution lay in the future but not until after the bourgeois uprising. Believed that their historic role ws to mobilize support for their party through propaganda, undertake timely liberal alliances, and reject terror—sought to be a large party of extreme revolutionary opposition.
Simone de Beauvoir
French author of The Second Sex. She argued for women's rights and was also a prominent figure in the existentialist movement. She died in 1986.
Petrograd
city with a lot of social polarization.
Marcel Proust
An esteemed French writerwho sought to integrate psychological elements, especially regarding suppressed memories, into literature. His most famous work is the multi-volume Rememberance of Things Past. (1913-1927)
Margaret Sanger and Marie Stoopes
Early crusaders for women's reproductive rights.
Stolypin's neckties
ropes of the gallows used to execute more than 1,000 people. These hangings occurred due to an august decree by the tsar that established military field courts that could summarily convict and sentence civilians accused of violent political crimes.
"Bloody Sunday"
In 1905, a large but peaceful group of poor Russians marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to NIcholas II. Soldiers opened fire on the group, and many (including women and children) were killed or injured; this further reduced trust in the Czar.
Glasnost
Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of "openness" in Soviet government. While it was meant to gain the support and trust of Russian citizens, it actuall undermined the Soviet's reputation and stability.
Boris Yeltsin
First leader of the Russian Republic. HIs pro-democracy reaction when Gorbachev's push for reform was held off by the Communist establishment was a rallying point for Russian democratic supporters.
Jawaharial Nehru
India's first Prime Minister from 1947-64.
Pablo Picasso
One of the artistic giants of the twentieth century. Helped found the Cubist and Abstract movements. During his life, 1881-1973, he worked in various media and is noted for scores of important works. His painting Guernica is one of the most powerful anti-war expressions of the modern era.
Henri Petain
Led the French army at Verdun and eventually became Commander of the French Armies. He served as Prime Minister in 1940. When German forces defeated France, he took control of the Vichy area in 1942. Because of his cooperation with the Nazis, he was arrested and imprisoned until his death in 1951.
Sergey Witte
became prime minister for Nicolas II. Eager to make Russia a modern industrial power if the tsar granted minimal reforms. Got Nicolas to rescind redemption payments, allow religious toleration in Poland, allow Poles/Lithuanians to use their own languages, turn political trials back to regular courts, and abolish some restrictions on Jews. Eventually dismissed...
Igor Stravinsky
Russian composer whose use of non-traditional harmonies and dissonant sounds revolutionized modern music. Two important works are Rite of Spring and Firebird.
Liberal constitutionalism
played a role in the expanding domain of Russian public opinion since the 1860s. believers in this were gentry, leaders of local assemblies, and members of the expanding professional classes. Some state bureaucrats too.
Expressionism
Beginning in the early 1900s, a school of art that focused on the emotional reaction to a subject. Paintings usually have strong lines and bold, vibrant colors. Masters of the style include Georges Rouault, Vincent van Gogh, and Paul Gaugin.
War Industries Committee
industrialists formed this with permission of the tsar in 1915 in order to expedite wartime production. Delegations of workers were added.
Black Hundreds
fanatical Russian nationalists, perhaps instigated by Orthodox priests, who unleashed a wave of violence against Jews. Led by small traders and agricultural laborers who feared that economic change would cost them. Also by police who opposed political reform. Continued to beat up opponents of tsar.
Tannenberg
most disastrous military defeat of the Russians where 100,000 Russian troops were captured
State Council
upper assembly decreed to be established by the tsar. Loyal people. Counteracted the influence of the Duma.
Socialist Revolutionaries
populists. Largest radical group. Believed the peasants would one day overthrow the tsar and only revolution could bring reform.
Rasputin
Self-proclaimed Russian Holy man who became confidante to Czarina Alexandria, wife of Nicholas II. He reputedly was able to help the hei, Alexis, who suffered from hemophilia. His unsavory reputation and drunken behavior led to rumors that his relationship with the Czarina was inappropriate. Murdered in 1916.
Leon Trotsky
One of the leaders of the Russian Communist revolution (1917). A close supporter of Lenin, Trotsky was largely responsible for creating the Red Army. After Lenin's death in 1924, he and Stalin sought control of the party; Stalin won. He was deported in 1929 and murdered in 1940 by an agent of Stalin.
Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party
Marxists founded this at Minsk in 1898. confident that one day in way future proletariat would be sufficiently numerous/class-conscious to seize power. After a democratic revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian aristocracy.
Alexander Ulyanov
Lenin's brother; member of the revolutionary group "Peoples' Will;" executed due to participation in plot to assassinate Alex III.
Bolsheviks
They were the radical Russian Communists, led by Lenin, who established Communist rule in Russia. They were nicknamed the "Reds."
Nicholas II
The last czar of Russia, he abdicated in 1917 and was murdered in 1918 along with his family. Though generally regarded as a decent man, he was an extremely weak and ineffective leader.
Constitutional Democratic Party
Kadets. Staunch liberals who demanded constitutional government and thought that Nicolas's promised reforms left the essential structures of autocracy unchanged.
Nikita Kruschev
Leader of the USSR from 1953-64. While famous for his "we will bury you" comment to the United States, he also opened communication with the West, particularly the United States. He also ended Stalinist purges in the USSR.
Duma
national representative assembly; created by the October Manifesto; had little real power. Met for the first time in April 1906.
Five Year Plans
Stalin's attempt to rapidly modernize Russia's industrial capacity began in 1928, with the collectivization of farms as a part of the process. Russia's heavy industrial capacity did increase, but the collectivization caused massive unrest and violence. The second Five Year Plan began in 1933.
Defensists
those among Russian socialists who argued that Russian workers should defend their country against German attack.
Joseph Stalin
Stalin became dictator of Russia after Lenin's death in 1924. He led the USSR through WWII and into the Cold War. He died in 1953 and is remembered for his brutal purges in his nation.
"Lebensraum"
German word meaning "living space." The Nazis claimed the German people deserved more room to expand and used this as a justification for invading meighboring nations.
Chernobyl
The nuclear powerplant in the Ukraine that suffered two large explosions which released massive ammounts of radioactuve materials. It is the worst nuclear accident in history and thousands were and continue to be impacted by the disaster.
Soviets
neighborhood councils made up of delegates from factories, shops, trade unions, and political parties that helped organize strikes (legalized in Dec.). St. Petersburg workers' councils, the establishment of which were championed by the Mensheviks. Willing to collaborate with liberals.
Jewish Pale
those provinces where Jews were allowed to settle in Russia and where they faced endemic anti-Semitism and occasional bloody pogroms.
Octobrists
dominated the 1907 (third) Duma. Believed that the tsar's promises in his manifesto of October 1905 represented sufficient reform and wanted to stop at that.
Internationalists
opposed the war; viewed it as a struggle between capitalist powers in which workers were but pawns.
What is to be Done?
Lenin's pamphlet that established the basic tenets of a new revolutionary party.
October Manifesto
1905. created a national representative assembly (Duma) to be chosen by UMS. Promised freedom of the press.
Bauhaus
German architect Walter Gropius (1883-1969) founded the Bauhaus School of Architecture. He favored clean, streamlined buildings. Other pioneers of this "International Style" were Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright.
Bloody Sunday
January 22 1905. Orthodox priest led a march of workers carrying a reformative petition to the tsar's Winter Palace. but troops blocked their way and 300+ marchers including women and children died and 1000+ maybe wounded. Shattered the myth that the tsar was the Holy Father.
Gulags
Forced labor camps set up by Stalin in easter Russia. Dissidents were sent to the camps, where conditions were generally brutal. Millions died.
Section 4
(50 cards)
Red Guard
factory workers' militias
Solidarity
Polish labor union formed in 1980 after major protests against the Communist labor system in place at the time. In 1981 it was shut down by the Polish Communist leadership, but regained strength in 1989 and openly opposed the Soviet-backed party.
Alexei
ill only son of the Romanovs. Hemophiliac and heir to the throne. Healed by Rasputin.
Nestor Makno
anarchist who led a huge peasant army that controlled parts of Ukraine after the Germans had fallen back.
General Alexsandr Kolchak
established a dictatorship in Siberia, claiming to be the new government of Russia. Backed by Britain and France.
April Crisis
of the provisional government. Was when the minister of foreign affairs, a leader of the Kadets, added something that called for "war to decisive victory" and other stuff to an official communication to the allies. Protests and demonstrations against the war by the Petrograd Soviet ensued, leading to his resignation.
Conference of Public Figures
in early august 1917 these people pledged Kornilov their support—influential leaders drawn from industry, commerce, banking, military
October Revolution
provisional government collapsed, Kerensky left Petrograd, not a lot of opposition, just neutrality.. not a lot of violence... Bolsheviks now held power in Petrograd
Leon Trotsky
Lev Davidovich Bronstein. 1879-1940. led uprising in the October Revolution. Revolutionary son of a wealthy jewish farmer. Only serious fighting of the October revolution I think. The "People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs." Offered Germany an armistice in Dec. 1917 but didn't want a peace but they ended up signing a treaty
Commissars
people who would spread news of the revolution to distant reaches of the old empire. Did this in the October revolution and ones before. Also, after the Russian Civil War, they reestablished Bolshevik authority over border lands like Georgia, Ukraine, and Turkistan.
Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People
Lenin proclaimed this in January 1918. stated that the goal of the revolutionary government was the socialist organization of society and the victory of socialism in all countries.
SALT I
Treaty signed in 1972 between the U.S. and the USSR. This agreement limited the number of missiles in each nation and led to the SALT II discussions and a slowdown of the arms race between the two countries.
White Terror
in Finalnd, this took 80,000 victims among those who had supported the Revolution.
Tsarina Alexandra
loathed by her subjects. Born in Germany. Granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Raised in England. Converted to Russian Orthodoxy. Had an ill son. Friends with Rasputin a lot. Extended influence over weak-willed husband; conservative. Was not a German agent but served their purposes well.
Kulaks
name for wealthier peasants.
Whites
anti-Bolshevik forces in the Russian Civil War. Shared a common hatred of the Bolsheviks. Played upon anti-Semitism by denouncing Trotsky and other Jewish Bolsheviks. Popular opinion was rallied against them when the Allies intervened on their "side" and they were more Brutal than their counterparts
Cheka
All-Russian Extraordinary Commission. New centralized police authority est. December 1917. rooted out Bolsheviks' enemies. Rapidly proliferated into a large organization with virtually unlimited power. Arbitrary arrests
Russian Socialist Soviet Republic
created by the third All-Russian Congress of Soviets. A federation of soviet republics in which Russia's interests still remained paramount.
Nevsky Prospect
around where the upper-and-middle class residential districts and the palatial buildings of imperial government lay in Petrograd. Long street. Shows segregation.
Reds
Bolsheviks called this during the Russian Civil War.
Alexsandr Kerensky
Socialist Revolutionary leader. Head of the provisional government, trying to smooth relations between them and the soviet. Leader of the first coalition gov. prime minister of the second coalition gov.
Comintern
An association of Communist parties founded in 1919 by Russian Bolshevik leader Lenin, to promote the spread of the revolution and the preaching of communist principles throughout Europe.
Ekaterinburg
town in the Ural Mountains whereto Bolshevik guards moved Nicolas II and his family. They were executed on the orders of the local soviet on july 17.
Russian Civil War
began in 1918 when Kornilov and other generals raised armies to fight the Bolsheviks. Whites vs. Reds. Reds won.
Progressive Bloc
formed by some liberal members of the Duma, including Kadets. Committed to working with the tsar in hopes of encouraging reform.
General Anton Denikin
White general who headed the 150,000 strong largest White army that was defeated by the Red Army during the summer of 1919 in Ukraine.
Petrograd Soviet
of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. Members included several hundred workers. Elected officers, discussed ways to defend Petrograd against German military attack, and sent representatives to encourage the formation of soviets in other cities. Menshevik-dominated. Bolshevik leaders held back.
NATO
Formed in 1949, was the West's military organization designed to discourage further Soviet expansion and to counter the Warsaw Pact.
Kornilov Affair
when Kornilov was going to throw a coup and people supported him but there was a misunderstanding between him and Kerensky because kerensky believed that he would forma military government to restore order at first but remain loyal to him and the idea of a democratic government. Kornilov actually liked military style and authority, probably wanted to seize power and impose a right-wing military regime. Kornilov called on the army to be loyal to Russia and aid the dying motherland. There was never an actual coup d'état in this example of counter-revolution but it aided the Bolsheviks, who were able to portray themselves as the only possible saviors of the Revolution.
July Days
when the Bolsheviks rose in insurrection but ended up failing. This hardened political lines in Russia. Bolsheviks were arrested.
April Theses
Lenin's. argued that wartime chaos had allowed the bourgeois and proletarian revolutions to merge in a dramatically short period of time, and the overthrow of the aristocracy had handed power to the weak bourgeoisie holding power through the provisional government, which needed to be overthrown by the proletariat
Revolutionary defensism
the demand of the Petrograd Soviet and accepted by the provisional government which was a middle position between conservatives and radicals. Wanted "peace without annexations and indemnities;" also demanded that Russian military capacity be fully maintained.
Christian Democrats
Powerful center to center-right political parties that evolved in the late 1940s in Europe from former Catholic parties of the pre-WWII period. Christian parties gained increasing support in the postwar era, winning elections in par because of their participation in wartime resistance. A vital component of postwar politics, these groups shifted from their decades-old emphasis on advocating church interests to welcoming non-Catholics among their ranks and focusing on democracy, anti-communism, and social reform.
Berlin Wall
A 28 mile wall built by the Soviet Union in 1961 along the border of East and West Berlin to prevent East Germans from leaving for the West. Initially barbed wire, it was soon replaced by a concrete wall topped with barbed wire and gradually extended beyond the two cities to encompass the entire boundry between East and West Germany. It became emblematic of the cold war and kept Germany seperated until the Soviets agreed to remove it in 1989, in part as a gesture they hoped would keep the faltering Communist Party in power.
Grigory Rasputin
Alexandra's great favorite. Debauched holy man. Occult power. Moved his way to the inner circle of court life and then healed Alexei. Was assassinated by noble conspirators: first by poison, then shot, then smashed skull, then drowned in Neva River!
Moscow
russia's second city. Less socially polarized than Russia. Insurrection there began after the first favorable reports from Petrograd arrived. A week of fighting and then provisional govt. forces surrendered.
February Revolution
general strike closes down Petrograd, Russian soldiers mutiny, Bolsheviks and others are arrested because they want to go further than demonstrations, Nicolas 2 abdicated and provisional government was set up awkwardly duly serving with the Petrograd Soviet.
Willie Brandt
Cold War mayor of West Berlin who served as chancellor of West Germany (1969-74). He instituted a policy of greater cooperation with eastern communist nations.
All-Russian Congress of Soviets
began at the end of March 1917. brings together representatives of other soviets that had sprung up after revolution. Transforms Petrograd Soviet into a national body, est. a central executive committee dominated by members of the Petrograd Soviet. Increased popular pressure for radicalization of Revolution.
Detente
Period of increased cooperation between the US and the USSR. This was undertaken by Pres. Nixon and his Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, in the 1970s. It was a factor in the end of the Cold War and of the USSR.
Pravda
means truth. The Bolshevik party's newspaper whose offices were shut down by provisional government troops.
Bolshevik Revolution
The overthrow of Russia's Provisional Government in the fall of 1917 by Lenin and his Bolshevik forces, made possible by the government's continuing defeat in the war, its failure to bring political reform, and a further decline in the conditions of everyday life.
War Communism
how the Bolsheviks reacted to the crisis in the summer of 1918 of food shortages and famine. Appropriated heavy industries and gradually put an end to private trade. Created "committees of poor peasants." Forcibly requisitioned food and raw materials, turning poor peasants against wealthier ones. May have saved the Revolution but it took the terrible toll of decline in industrial production.
Order Number One
issued by the soviet on march 1 1917. claimed for the Petrograd Soviet the authority to cancel orders of the provisional government on military matters and called for the election of soldiers' committees in every unit.
Berlin airlift
Efforts, primarily by the US, to fly in millions of tons of food and heating fuel to over 2 million isolated residents of West Berlin in 1948-49. In an attempt to force ALllied nations out of Berlin, the Soviets blockaded all access to the city, which had been partitioned between Western powers and the Soviet Union at the end of WWII. The US made deliveries until the Soviets finally lifted the blockade. This incident led to the division of Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany in the west and the German Democratic Republic in the east.
U2 affair
An American secret spy plane that was shot down in 1960 while spying on the USSR. The pilot, Gary Powers, was captured alive. The US had insisted it was not spying on the USSR, and the event caused great embarrassment to the US and increased tensions in the Cold War.
General Lavr Kornilov
newly appointed commander in chief of the army in 1917 who seemed an obvious candidate to overthrow the provisional government. Tough, decorated Cossack. Escaped from Hungary after being captured during the Great War and was a favorite of the Kadets.
Prince Michael
Nicolas's brother who he left the throne to. Petrograd convinced him to refuse to succeed.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
march 3, 1918. signed w/ Russia's Bolshevik government and Germany. Gave up one-fourth of the surface of what had been imperial European Russia—very fertile land, most of iron and steel production. Agreed to German occupation of Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia. Acquiesced to pulling Russian troops out of Ukraine and Finland(Germans then occupied all of these areas and set up puppet regimes and got Ukraine into a harsh treaty). This angered the leftist Socialist Revolutionaries who then ended their cooperation with the Bolsheviks.
Red Terror
officially began in September 1918, following attempts on the lives of several Bolshevik leaders, including Lenin. Government decrees gave the Cheka almost unlimited authority and set up forced labor camps to incarcerate those considered enemies.
Section 5
(50 cards)
Act of Supremacy
Passed by the English Parliament in 1534, it completed England's break with the papacy by declaring Henry VIII the head of the Church of England, or Anglican church. It also allowed the monarchy to confiscate church property.
Afghanistan 1979
they try to rebel and Soviets crush them; Carter puts embargo on grain; boycotts Moscow Olympics
Sino-Soviet Split
Mao disagrees with Khrushchev's cooperation with US; struggling for dominance among communists
95 Theses
Martin Luther's list of complaints and reforms. He accused Johann Tetzel of wrongdoing in his selling of indulgences and asking people to pay for false promises of exoneration of their sins. Luther's protests spread throughout Europe, igniting the Reformation.
auto da fe
Portuguese for "demonstration" or "act of faith"; a ritual of public confession and humiliation for heretics and those suspected of heresy in Spain and Portugal during the Inquisition. Imposed and overseen by the Catholic Church, the first one took place in Sevill, Spain, in 1481, and the practice continued into the 19th century.
Non-Proliferation Treaty
UN General Assembly treaty that nuclear weapons will not be spread or developed, only nuclear energy could be improved
Alexander Dubcek
Communist Party Secretary of Czechoslovakia; loosens strict rules; permits criticism of government; assures loyalty to USSR; gets kicked out
United Nations
international organization founded in 1945 to promote world peace and progress
SALT II
planned reduction in missiles that is canceled when Soviets invade Afghanistan
Priesthood of All Believers
Luther's revolutionary idea that every believer had the ability to read and interpret theBible, that all people of faith were viewed by God as equals. This challenged the Church's position that priests had an exclusive ability to do so.
Star Wars
President Reagan's proposed weapons system to destroy Soviet missiles from space.
Czechoslovakia 1968
Dubcek's reforms worry Soviets so they crush his reforms August 21; example of Brezhnev Doctrine in action; condemned by world as extreme
Counter-Reformation
Was started in the 1530s by the Church and was aimed at reforming internal Church practices to combat the success of the Protestant Reformation.
John Wycliff
Criticized the Church and the corruption in its clergy in the 1300s. Challenged papal infallibility and called for the power of the clergy to be supplanted with the Bible and individual interpretation of it by all Catholics. Together with Jan Hus he set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.
Anabaptists
A religious sect started in Zurich, Switzerland, in the 16th century that believed that true faith was based on reason and free will and that people must knowingly select the Christian faith through rebaptism as adults. These men and women rejected the authority of the state and the courts, abolished private property, and believed themselvesto be true Christians who lived acording to the standards established in the Bible. The movement gained most of its support from artisans and the middle and lower classes, who were attracted by its simple message of peace and salvation. They were persecuted by both Catholic and Protestant authorities, and Zurch's magistrates, angered at the pacifist sect's refusal to bear arms, ordered that hundreds of them be put to death, thereby making them the Reformation's first martyrs of conscience.
canon law
The law of the Roman Catholic church. Originally a loose collection of papal decrees and edicts from church councils about the rules and practice of the faith, canon laws became a means through which the papacy asserted its authority over the church and medieval society.
Non-alignment movement
started in India of countries that did not want to be on either side of the Cold War; irony in Cuban's membership shows its uselessness
Carter Doctrine
Warning that any attempt by outside forces to gain control of the Persian Gulf would be met with military force from the US; created because Soviets were in Afghanistan and too close to Persian Gulf oil
Huguenots
Converts or adherents to Calvinism in France, including many from the French nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the Catholic monarch. Also known as French Protestants.
Johann Tetzel
Monk who was commissioned by Pope Leo X to raise money for the Church and was sent throughout northern Germany to sell indulgences (official ablutions for the purchaser's sins). This outraged Martin Luther and other critics of the Church and played a role in the start of the Reformation.
Predestination
John Calvin's belief that at the beginning of time, God had preselected who among all people would be saved and have salvation, a group known as the "elect." This group was expected to follow the highest moral standards and be completely dedicated to God's wishes.
Bay of Pigs
Kennedy allows CIA to send Cuban exiles in to take out Castro but it fails badly
Truman Doctrine
President Truman's 1947 promise that the US would defend peoples from subversion or outside pressure
Justification of Faith Alone
Luther's ideas revolved around this central tenet that people were led to salvation only through inner faith in God, rather than by participating in worldly rituals and good deeds.
John Calvin
Swiss leader of Protestantism and advocate of predestination who creatd theocracies in Swiss cantons. His ideas led to a large following in France, known collectively as Huguenots.
Church of England
Protestant church - and the official church of England - created by Henry VII (r. 1509-47) in 1534 to supplant the Roman Catholic church. Although initially opposed to Protestantism - even executing some of its leaders - Henry changed his mind when the pope refused to approve his divirce in 1527. In response he appointed two Protestants to high posts: Thomas Cromwell as chancellor and Thomas Cranmer as archbishop of Canterbury. Henry instructed Parliament to outlaw the Catholic church and declare him "the only supreme head of the Church of England."
sacraments
Religious rituals performed by Christians that are believed to be essential for salvation. Questions about the validity of these rituals - how they should be performed and who should be qualified to perform them - represented frequent sources of religious conflict.
Bull
An official papal letter or document, named for the bulla or raised seal used to signify its authenticity. Among the more famous ones was Exsurge Domine (1520), isued by Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521) against Martin Luther.
Diet of Worms
Special imperial council in Worms, Germany, to which Martin Luther was summoned after his excommunication in 1521. Luther was ordered to abandon his revolutionary ideas, which he refused to do, so he was banished from the empire. Luther was then sheltered in Saxony.
Jesuits
A religious order known as the Society of Jesus, created to strengthen support of the CHurch during the Counter-Reformation. Founded by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, these "soldiers of the Counter-Reformation" were committed to doing good deeds in order to achieve salvation.
Nuclear test ban treaty
July 1963 all powers except France and China agree to stop testing in atmosphere, space and underwater
Jansenism
Movement within the seventeenth-century Catholic Church. It opposed the Jesuits and advocated that humans could only achieve salvation through divine grace, not through good works.
START
dealt with long-range missiles; Bush and Gorgachev; reduction in long-range nuclear missiles
Index of Forbidden Books
Written by Pope Paul IV as part of the Counter-Reformation. It forbade Catholics from reading books considered "harmful" to faith and morals. This indicates the significance of the printing press in disseminating Reformation ideas.
Brezhnev Doctrine
Brezhnev says USSR has the right to help communist governments fighting against rebels; results in Czech 1968 and Afghanistan in 1979
Council of Trent
Summoned by Pope Paul III to try and define Catholic doctrine and thwart Protestant attacks on Catholic beliefs. These meetings did not reform the doctrines but did end several currupt practices criticized by Reformers within the Church and reasserted traditional Catholic doctrine.
Warsaw Pact
alliance formed in 1949 by Soviet Union and nations of Eastern Europe
Strategic Defense Initiative
Reagan's Star Wars defense system to shoot down missiles while they're in space
Marshall Plan
a massive American aid program announced in 1947 to help European nations recover from World War II
Glasnot
policy in the Soviet Union of speaking openly about problems.
Simony
Practice of teh Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages wherein Church leaders sold high Church positions. This practice was used to gain power for sons who would not inherit family wealth and land because of birth order.
Sputnik
First satelite launched into space by the Soviet Union
Reagan Doctrine
US would support freedom fighters trying to overthrow Communist regimes; applied in Nicaragua, Angola, Cambodia and Afghanistan
Satellite nation
nation that is dominated politically and economically by a more powerful nation.
Excommunication
Refusal of the Catholic Church to administer the sacraments to a person.
Edict of Nantes
Decreed by French King Henry IV in 1598, it granted Huguenots limited political freedoms and the freedom of worship and brought temporary civilian peace. Very unpopular in France among Catholics. Revoked by Louis XIV in 1685, leading to a massive emigration of French Huguenots.
Korean War
the cold war conflict in which UN soliders fought to defend South Korea from takeover by Communist North Korea, ending a stalemate in 1953
Alliance for Progress
Kennedy's Marshall Plan for Latin America to establish democratic governments, land reform, economic and social planning; US pledges $20 billion contribution; money wasn't used the way it was intended
containment
US would work in military and non-military ways to prevent communism from spreading around the world
Cuban missile crisis
the 1962 confrontation bewteen US and the Soviet Union over Soviet missiles in Cuba
Section 6
(50 cards)
Erasmus of Rotterdam
creates a greek version of the new testament
cavaliers
supporters of Charles I
Cardinal Richelieu
Chief minister to Henry IV's weak son, Louis XIII of France. He worked to establish absolute rule by weakening the nobles and Huguenots and employing intendants.
Hereditary Despotism
a single ruler
Giovanni Boccaccio
The Decameron (1375)
marranos
Spanish Jews
Henry IV
First Bourbon king of France, ruled 1589-1610, and converted to Catholicism from Calvinism to bring peace after the French Civil War. He passed the Edict of Nantes and was also assassinated in 1610.
Edict of Nantes
religious freedom for Huguenots
City-States
Florence, Genoa, Milan, Venice, Bologna, Lucca, Perugia, Mantua, Papal States
Renaissance Humanism
rebirth in classical tradition not spontaneous, but full of passion
Christian Humanism
rediscover christian documents
Jules Mazarin
Louis XIV powerful chief minister and rumored to be his biological father
Peter the Great
Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. He brought Western European ideas to Russia, improved the Russian army, archieved control of the Orthodox Church, dominated the nobility, and transformed Russia into a major world power.
Renaissance
rebirth
Baldassare Castiglione
The Courtier (1514)
Printing Press
made by Johann Gutenberg in 1450
Reign of Charles II
period of Restoration
The Fall of Constantinople
1453
Francois Rabelias
Gargantua and Pantagruel (1535)
Benvento Cellini
Autobiography (1570)
The Fronde
A series of revolts in France from 1648-1653 that challenged the authority of young King Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715) and his minister Mazarin. Royal power had expanded greatly during the 17th century under Mazarin and his mentor Richelieu, fostering resentment among nobility and the parliaments who lost power. The revolts began when Mazarin attempted to impose a new tax on members of the parliaments, who refused o pay. When Mazarin arrested the ringleaders of the resistence, Parisians rebelled, forcing the monarchy to flee the city. The revolt left a lasting impression on Louis XIV, who designed his policies to prevent future rebellions.
Desiderius Erasmus
The Praise of Folly (1509)
War of Spanish Succession
War fought by European powers after the death of the last Hapsburg ruler of Sapin in 1700, which left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson. Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
William Shakespeare
Tragedies, Comedies, Histories (1600)
Northern Italy
1. location 2. roads 3. banking 4. trade
Ivan IV
Romanov ruler of Russia known as the Terrible. He was a fierce ruler who laid the groundwork for the westernizing of Russia that was later contiuned by Peter the Great. Ivan IV's rule of intimidation lasted from 1547-1584
Medici Family
rule Florence
canton system
A system instituted in Prussia by Frederick William I (r. 1713-40) in 1733 to create a reserve army and expand Prussia's military capacity. Youths in each district were given two or three months of army training annually; they could then return to their homes for the rest of the year, where they would remain in reserve for as long as they were able-bodied. Despite its small general population, this system gave Prussia one of the largest armies in Europe.
Popolo Grosso
nobles, bankers, rich people
Treaty of Westphalia
ended 30 Years' War
Niccolo Machavelli
The Prince (1513)
Versailles
The opulent French palace built by Louis XIV just outside of Paris. Versailles reperesented the ostentation and absolute power of his monarchy. Louis required all his important nobles to live there so he could control them.
Condotteri
mercenaries
absolutism
A system of government in which a monarch holds sole and uncontestable power over the state and his or her subjects. Supporters of this theory linked royal power with divine authority, presenting the monarch as God's lieutenant on earth. It was most prevalent in the 17th century and emerged in response to decades of religious warfare, which fueled public demand for a strong ruler who could maintain order. It is best exemplified by Louis XIV (r.1643-1715) of France.
James I
first Stuart king of England
Thomas a'Kempis
The Imitation of Christ (1441)
Sir Thomas Moore
Utopia (1514)
habeas corpus
right of people to be safe from unfair imprisonment
Dontello
1425 David
Louis XIV, the Sun King
He ruled from 1643-1715, the longest reign in French history. He constructed Versailles, believed in divine right of kings, engaged in many wars, and established absolutism in France.
roundheads
supporters of Oliver Cromwell
Dante
The Divine Comedy (1320)
Roman Law
12 Tables
Intendants
Officials of the French absolute rulers who were dispensed as regional representatives into French provinces to consolidate the Crown's control.
Popolo Minuto
workers and artisans
Pico della Mirandola
Oration on the Dignity of Man (1490)
Catherine the Great
Romanov of ruler of Russia from 1763-1796 who supported the enlightened editions to Russians culture and expanded Russia's borders to include control of the northern shores of the Black Sea, the Crimea, Polish land, and Alaska.
Oligarchy
small group of people who make laws
Romanovs
Russian imperial dynasty that strengthened absolutism in Russia. Ruled from 1613-1917, when the Revolution forced Nicholas II's abdication.
Treaty of Utrecht
Ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, recognizing France's Philip V as Kind of Spain, but prohibited the unification of the French and Spanish monarchies. England gained profiable lands in North America from France.
Section 7
(16 cards)