Section 1
Preview this deck
Triglyceride
Front
| 5 | 0 | ||
| 4 | 0 | ||
| 3 | 0 | ||
| 2 | 0 | ||
| 1 | 0 |
Active users
0
All-time users
1
Favorites
0
Last updated
6 years ago
Date created
Mar 1, 2020
Cards (246)
Section 1
(64 cards)
Triglyceride
Most common form of fat storage in the body Overall nonpolar and hydrophobic Make up adipocytes
Microfilaments
ACTIN filaments; fine, threadlike proteins found in the cell's cytoskeleton Interacts with myosin to cause muscle contraction Responsible for the pinching of the cytoplasm during cytokinesis (cleavage)
Outer ear
Outer part of the ear that collects sound waves; Pinna and the ear canal
Endoderm
Innermost germ layer; develops into the linings of the digestive tract and much of the respiratory system
Phosphatase
Removes a phosphate group from a molecule
Inner ear
Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Visual Pathway to the Brain
Cornea Iris Pupil Lens Retina Bipolar cells Optic nerve (ganglion cells) Optic chiasm Thalamus Occipital lobe Visual cortex
Beta Oxidation Pathway
The major pathway of fatty acid oxidation (broken down) to produce NADH, FADH2, and acetyl coenzyme A for Kreb's Cycle Ex: Ketone bodies Cytosol in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria in eukaryotes
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Alternative pathway to glycolysis (no ATP is consumed or produced) Produces NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis
Penetrance
The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype
Eustachian tube
A narrow tube between the middle ear and the throat that equalizes pressure on both sides of the eardrum
Tight junctions
Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Ex: bladder, intestines, and kidney
Bottleneck effect
A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population
Competitive inhibition
Inhibitor resembles the normal substrate thus competes with substrate for enzyme active site. Adding more substrate will overpower inhibition No change vmax, Kmax increases (substrate increases)
Desmosomes
Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart by attaching directly to the cytoskeletons Strongest Found in tissues that normally experience a lot of stress due to sliding, like skin
Retinal in the light
Absorbs photons and converts to the all-trans form, which closes sodium channels/hyperpolarization
Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression
Microtubules
A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella, mitotic spindle α and ß-tubulin that come together to form a dimer -> sheet -> microtubule Form a network (sort of like a railroad track) from the soma of nerve cell with help of kinesin and dynein
Hypothalamus
A limbic system structure involved in several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (releases CRH, ACTH) Homeostasis
Phosphorylase
Adds inorganic phosphate onto substrate without using ATP
Gap junctions
Small tunnels/tubes that connect cells, facilitating the movement of small molecules and ions between the cells In cardiac muscle - allow the spread of the action potential from cell to cell
Hydrolase
Catalyzes a hydrolytic cleavage within molecule
Gene flow
Movement of alleles from one population to another
Kinase
Adds phosphate onto substrate using ATP
Noncompetitive inhibition
Inhibitor binds with the enzyme at allosteric site and inactivates the enzyme by altering its shape Decreases vmax, Km no change
Hershey-Chase experiment
Used radioactive material to label DNA and protein; infected bacteria passed on DNA to prove that DNA is genetic material not proteins
Lyase
Splits a chemical bond in the absence of water
Ectoderm
Outermost germ layer; produces sense organs, neural cells, and outer layer of skin (Adrenal medulla)
Uncompetitive inhibition
Inhibitor binds with the enzyme at the allosteric site (binding only to the enzyme-substrate complex) Decreases vmax, decreases Km (but same ratio)
Organs of corti
Basilar membrane + tectorial membrane + cilia Where sound is picked up because as the basilar membrane moves, cilia are brushed up against the tectorial membrane, causing an action potential, and sound
Leakage
Gene flow from one species to another
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
Genetic drift
A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection, mostly impacts small populations Ex: bottleneck, founder's effect
Retinal
Made from vitamin A Joins with opsin to form a photopigment (rhodopsin)
Peroxisomes
Breaks down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide to detoxify harmful substances
Conditions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
1. Extremely large population size: the smaller the population the likelier genetic drift will occur 2. No gene flow 3. No mutations 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection
Mixed-type inhibition
Inhibitor binds to either enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex, so Km can go up or down Vmax will always decrease because it's allosteric
Griffith's experiment
Proved bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation
Founder's effect
A change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population (loss of genetic variation within original population)
Hippocampus
A limbic system structure involved in processing memories
Mesoderm
Middle germ layer; develops into muscles, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems (Adrenal cortex)
Middle ear
Chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (malleus, incus, stapes), tympanic membrane
Fatty acids
Building blocks for most complex lipids Oxidation of fatty acids liberates large amounts of chemical energy for a cell Long-term energy storage
Expressivity
Degree to which a trait is expressed
Retinal in the dark
Has several trans double bonds, sodium channels are open/depolarized
Rough ER
Network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes
Limbic system
Hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus, thalamus Associated with emotions and drives
Low frequency vs high frequency
Low: Further away from oval window (basilar membrane is thin/floppy near apex of cochlea) High: Closer to oval window (basilar membrane is sturdy)
Auditory Pathway to Brain
Malleus receives the vibrations, function with the incus and stapes to amplify sound vibrations, vibrates oval window Pressure waves in the perilymph and endolymph, (fluids in the cochlea) cause vibration in the basilar membrane Basilar membrane is covered with hair cells, (cilia) that bend from vibration, causing movement across the tectorial membrane Ion channels in the hair cells open, resulting in neurotransmitter release
Smooth ER
Plays a role in lipid metabolism Oxidizes foreign substance (toxins, pesticides, pollutants, etc)
Section 2
(62 cards)
Luteal phase of ovarian cycle
LH stimulates secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have cell walls with LESS peptidoglycan BUT with lipopolysaccharides which serve as a protective barrier from antibodies Very toxic and hard to treat PINK
Nucleus accumbens
Located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior
Gluconeogenesis
The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources Occurs in liver
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
Occurs in mito matrix A group of three enzymes that decarboxylates pyruvate -> acetyl-CoA and carbon dioxide In the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall, and no outer membrane. They stain very darkly Purple
ACh
Released by LMN and synapse on skeletal muscle (somatic NS) thus enables muscle action Also released by autonomic NS
Testes
Make sperm and testosterone
If pregnant...
Ovulation is prevented by high levels of estrogen & progesterone which inhibit secretion of LH
Follicular phase of ovarian cycle
FSH promotes the development of a follicle that secretes estrogen. Surge in LH and ovulation around day 14 in the 28-day cycle
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
Multipotent stem cells
Can differentiate into multiple types of cells only within a particular group
Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
Anterior pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate secretion of progesterone & estrogen
Testicular interstitium
Tissue between seminiferous tubules containing interstitial cells (Leydig cells) which are responsible for making androgen/testosterone
Endometrium
Inner, mucous membrane lining of the uterus that sheds every month -> menstruation
Gluconeogenesis step: Glucose-6-phosphate -> ?
Glucose via glucose-6-phosphatase
Female resolution
Controlled by sympathetic nervous system Uterus drops forward to its resting position and the orgasmic platform quickly relaxes while the inner end of the vagina returns to its normal dimensions more slowly
LH and FSH control what?
LH stimulates the thecal cells of the ovarian follicle to produce androgens FSH stimulates androgen -> estrogen and progesterone (steroids)
Menstruation Phase of Uterine Cycle
Corpus luteum degenerates and estrogen & progesterone levels drop causing endometrial lining to slough out of uterus → bleeding
Male arousal
Parasympathetic input -> erection & lubrication
Gluconeogenesis step: Oxaloacetate -> ?
PEP via PEP carboxykinase
Neurula
The embryonic stage after the gastrula. Neurochord (made from mesoderm) causes overlying ectoderm to thicken and form into neural plate Neural tube forms from plate, to become spinal cord, brain, and most of the nervous system
Myometrium
Muscular wall of the uterus, surrounds endometrium
Complex I
Inner membrane Flavin receives e-s donated by NADH & donates to Fe-S proteins in a series of redox reactions (NADH oxidized to NAD+) Fe-S proteins donate e-s to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) that is a freely permeable molecule in inner membrane (this transfer of e-s generates energy used to pump 4 H+ ions from matrix into intermembrane space)
Gastrula
An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm 3rd week after fertilization
Female orgasm
Controlled by sympathetic nervous system Muscle contractions & widening of cervix, no ejaculation
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation Sympathetic NS
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
A hormone released from the hypothalamus that triggers the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
Gluconeogenesis step: Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate -> ?
*RDS Fructose-6-phosphate via fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase
Hormones in spermatogenesis
1. LH promotes interstitial/Leydig cells to secrete testosterone 2. Testosterone stimulates the formation of sperm 3. FSH- STARTS SPERMATOGENESIS
Gluconeogenesis step: Pyruvate -> ?
Oxaloacetate via pyruvate carboxylase
Pluripotent stem cells
These cells can differentiate into any cell type except for those found in the placental structures
Ovulatory phase of ovarian cycle
This surge of LH from follicular phase -> secondary oocyte to be released -> ovulation
Complex IV
Inner membrane Cu ions receive e- donated by Cytochrome C Final receiver, O2, gets e- and is reduced to H2O These e- transfers cause 2H+ to be pumped into intermembrane space
Spermatogenesis
Production of sperm via mitosis & meiosis where spermatogonium (2n) -> primary spermatocyte(2n) -> secondary spermatocytes (n) -> spermatids (n) -> spermatozoa Takes place in seminiferous tubules in testes Seminiferous tubules empty sperm into epididymis (behind each testicle) → empties sperm into ductus deferens (vas deferens) via seminal vesicles → urethra (tube inside penis)
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
Proliferative phase of uterine cycle
Rising blood estrogen levels Endometrium is repaired
Complex II
Inner membrane produces FADH2 as it converts succinate → fumarate FADH2 donates its e-s (oxidized) to the Fe-S complex which are transferred to ubiquinone (just like in Complex I)
Female arousal
Parasympathetic activation Engorgement of erectile tissues in clitoris and labia minora Lubrication of vestibular glands (mucous)
Oogenesis
Production, growth, and maturation of an egg, or ovum Difference from men, is that in females, all primary oocytes are formed during fetal development Oogonia (2n) -> Primary oocytes (2n) (remain in Prophase I until puberty & beginning of menstrual cycle) -> secondary oocyte (n) (remains in metaphase II until fertilization but if not getting pregnant, then discharged) -> ootid (n) -> ovum (n) which can be fertilized by sperm cell (sticks to wall of uterus called endometrium)
Secretory phase of uterine cycle
Progesterone & estrogen is predominating Secretion of glycogen, lipids
Fallopian tubes
Tubes which carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus and which provides the place where fertilization occurs
Male orgasm
Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system Emission of sperm & semen into urethra -> ejaculation
Totipotent stem cells
Stem cells that can differentiate into any type of specialized cells found in organisms (embryonic stem cells) -> 3 germ cell layers thus now becoming pluripotent
Complex III
Inner membrane Coenzyme Q combines with 2H+ coming from matrix and gets reduced (Q → QH2). The H+ were powered by the redox reactions in Complex I Coenzyme Q is freely permeable transfers e-s to Cytochrome C1 -> transfers to Fe-S proteins -> transfers to Cytochrome B -> transfers to Cytochrome C (redox reactions taking place as e-s are transferred between the cytochromes pump 4H+ from matrix to intermembrane space)
Semen made by
Seminal vesicles Prostate glands Bulbourethral glands
HCG hormone
Secreted by placenta when pregnancy has occurred Tells body to continue secretion of estrogen and progesterone
Male resolution
Discharge of the sympathetic nervous system Erectile arteries are constricted resulting in decreased blood flow to erectile tissue, veins can carry away trapped blood
Intermediate filaments
Provide structural support to the cell and help resist mechanical stress made from string of proteins
Ovaries
Glands that produce the egg cells and hormones
Section 3
(66 cards)
Layers of heart muscle (out -> in)
Pericardium Myocardium Endocardium
Chylomicrons
Droplet of fat pumped out of small intestine's walls thus cannot diffuse through capillaries Needs help from lacteal
MEG
uses magnetic fields produced by currents, better resolution than EEG but $$
Merkel's disk
Single disk located in the stratum basale or the papillary dermis When the disk is stimulated, the neuropeptides are released and stimulate a receptor, causing sodium to enter the disk. Responds to light touch that is sustained (does not need to change for us to notice it)
Osteocyte cells
Mature bone cell (located in lacunae which are empty bone spaces) Star-like appearance to communicate with other osteocytes or osteoblasts
Lacteals
Specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that allow chylomicrons to diffuse in, travel through the lymphatic system, and be deposited back into the circulatory system
Muscle contraction steps
Motor neuron releases ACh into the neuromuscular junction and causes the depolarization of the sarcolemma Myosin is bound to the actin filament. ATP then binds to myosin "head" & myosin releases actin ATP hydrolyzes (—> ADP + Pi + energy), cocking the myosin protein to high energy conformation ("loads the spring") Phosphate group is released from myosin, which releases the energy of the cocked position and causes it to push on the actin filament (releases the spring) ADP released, and myosin is still bound to the actin... so we're where we were in step 1, but one stroke further along the actin filament
Stratum granulosum
Granular layer that hold proteins which help handle keratin Also release lamellar bodies, which secrete lipids that give skin its water-tight capability
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin
fMRI
same as MRI in terms of structure but measures oxygenated/de blood to tell us which parts of brain are active/not
Hormone classes
Autocrine (function at the cell that makes them) Paracrine (function regionally) Endocrine (function at a distance)
Pacnian's corpuscle
A type of mechanoreceptor (pacpa like layer of onion in Tibetan) in hypodermis When a significant force touches one of the lamella, or one of the concentric rings of the corpuscle, an action potential in an efferent nerve cell is activated This type of corpuscle responds to a deep touch like poke/push Also requires a constantly changing stimulus
CT scans
x-rays, tells us if brain swelling but not what areas of brain are active
Hormones responsible for maintaining calcium homeostasis are
PTH (pararthyroid), calcitonin, calcitriol They help regulate osteoblast / osteoclast activity in bone
Stratum lucidum
Clear layer Composed of dead keratinocytes (clear) which have lost their nuclei and organelles
Bohr effect
Decrease in the amount of oxygen associated with Hb in response to a lowered blood pH resulting from an increased concentration of CO2 in the blood
Henry's law equation
Partial pressure = what's going in Kh = what's going out Higher Kh = more going out thus lower solubility
MRI
radio waves, more detailed picture of brain but no idea about function
EEG
noninvasive but can't tell us about specific neurons just if they're sleeping/awake or engaged/not
Oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath
Role of calcitonin
Tones down blood - Reduces Ca+ and Phosphate levels in blood
miRNA
Noncoding RNA Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression by base pairing with complementary sequences within mRNA molecules. Results in gene silencing (mRNAs to which miRNAs bind are prevented from translation or sent through a pathway for degradation)
Ruffini's endings
A mechanoreceptor that has nerve fibers, located deep in the reticular dermis When the skin is stretched, a force is generated which hits the Ruffini corpuscle, causing the collagen to be perturbed. Because this collagen shifts, ion channels within the A-beta fiber opens causing an action potential to be generated
PET scan
more invasive than fMRI, combined with CAT & MRIs, uses glucose to see which parts of brain are using energy
Hormones sent to anterior pituitary -> organs
Prolactin Endorphins Growth hormones
Stratum spinosum
Prickly layer Has desmosomes that allow water loss Has Langerhans cells, which are part of the immune system
Astrocytes
Provide structural, repair and metabolic support for neurons in CNS Strengthening the blood brain barrier
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Receptors outside the brain that monitor blood pH, O2 and CO2 levels to help regulate ventilation rate
5 strata of epidermis (outer to inner)
Stratum corneum Stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale
Stratum corneum
Outermost layer Composed of stacked layers (15-20) of dead keratinocytes which randomly and continuously slough off
Blood vessel layers (out -> in)
Tunica externa Tunica media Tunica intima
Central chemoreceptors
Located near the respiratory center in the brainstem They gather info on CO2 levels, pH (but not O2 levels) and send it to the respiratory center for processing
Reticular dermis
Thicker area of the dermis that forms the bulk of the dermal layer Anchors glands and hair follicles
Stratum basale
Deepest epidermal layer made of a single row of cells that undergo rapid cell division Composed of keratinocytes (giving skin its toughness for protection). It is made here Has melanocytes that secrete melanin, which causes skin color
Papillary dermis
Layer of dermis directly under the epidermis; rich in blood vessels and capillaries Thin, loose connective tissue to allow for movement of blood and vessels, O2 diffusion
Meissner's corpuscle
A type of mechanoreceptor, located in the papillary dermis. Has layers of disks that get pertrubed by stimuli causing them to nudge past each other -> Na+ then enter an afferent fiber causing an action potential Used to perceive light touch (this mechanoreceptor would perceive the feeling of putting on a smooth cotton T-shirt) A constantly changing stimulus is needed to perceive the stimulus. Therefore, after the cotton T-shirt is on our skin and no longer moving, it will not be felt and Meissner's corpuscle will not be activated
Hormones sent to anterior pituitary gland -> other glands
FSH LH ACTH TSH
Mechanoreceptors
Sensory receptors that respond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch Send info about pressure to respiratory center
Osteoclast cells
Responsible for bone resorption; they break bone back down (using an enzyme called tartrate resistant acid phosphotase) Forms special lacunae called Howship's lacunae
Two strata of dermis
Composed of connective tissue (not epithelial like epidermis) Papillary dermis Reticular dermis
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with the brain's pleasure and reward system
Tropomyosin and Troponin
Regulatory proteins bound to actin that prevent muscle contraction (when we want it to stop) Tropomyosin is bound to actin and held by protein complex troponin so it can block myosin access to actin -> muscle relaxation Troponin can unblock myosin is for it to change its shape; only happens with a high concentration of Ca+ in the cell
PCR
A process used to copy DNA, requires denaturing (separating) the double strands by applying heat (acts like helicase) Use of Taq polymerase (acts like DNA pol) which can withstand heat
Haldane effect
Oxygenation of blood in the lungs displaces carbon dioxide from hemoglobin which increases the removal of carbon dioxide, increase in pH
Microglia
Act as phagocytes, eating damaged cells and bacteria in CNS, act as the brains immune system
Role of PTH and calcitrol
Both increase calcium in the blood PTH decreases phosphate levels, while calcitrol increases them
Osteoprogenitor cells
Bone stem cells able to differentiate into the other types of cells (immature version, or the precursor to, osteoblasts)
4 bone cell types
osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
Osteoblast cells
Responsible for synthesizing collagen and proteins (specifically, osteocalcin and osteopontin, which together make up osteoid, the organic part of bone matrix). Once osteoblasts have synthesized enough collagen, proteins, they mature into the osteocyte Helps build ip bones
Skin layers (outer to inner)
Epidermis (where nails grow from), dermis (where hair grows from), hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
Section 4
(54 cards)