Section 1
Preview this deck
Polysaccharides
Front
| 5 | 0 | ||
| 4 | 0 | ||
| 3 | 0 | ||
| 2 | 0 | ||
| 1 | 0 |
Active users
0
All-time users
0
Favorites
0
Last updated
6 years ago
Date created
Mar 14, 2020
Cards (148)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Polysaccharides
Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)
Centrosomes (2 centrioles)
only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division
When ΔG is positive...
...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).
Isotonic
equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid
The higher the substrate concentration...
...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.
Membrane Potential
voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)
Active transport
movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
Lysosomes
only in animal cells, digestive organelles
Hydrolysis
disassembling polymers by the addition of water
Phospholipid Bilayer
tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied
Protein structure and organization
composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)
Reduction
gain of electrons (RIG)
Protein functions (8)
1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins
Rough ER
covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes
Central Vacuole
only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)
Hypertonic
solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed
*Nucleic Acids
DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins
Conversion Reaction before Kreb's
Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2
Smooth ER
metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)
Electron Acceptors
Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids
Induced fit
change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate
Oxidative Phosphorylation
ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen
Electrochemical Gradient
diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient
Substrate
the substance that an enzyme acts upon
*Enzymes
proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over
Nuclear Envelope
double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER
Glycolysis
Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH
Passive trasport
movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)
Chromatin
uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division
When ΔG is negative...
...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).
Nucleolus
nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these
Hypotonic
solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid
Flagella
only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility
Noncompetitive Inhibitors
bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions
Feedback Inhibition
the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process
Golgi
stores, transports, and secretes cell products
Fats
consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)
Active Site
region of enzyme that binds to the substrate
Denaturation
the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH
Phospholipids
consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic
Cytoskeleton
supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products
Cofactors
nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes
Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if...
...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)
Extracellular Matrix
only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell
*Lipids
hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains
Dehydration
connecting monomers together by the removal of water
Disaccharides
glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose
Competitive Inhibitors
resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate
Oxidation
loss of electrons (OIL)
Section 2
(50 cards)
Watson and Crick
built the first accurate 3D DNA model
Incomplete Dominance
heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)
Mitosis
1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense
Lytic Cycle
1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell
Repressible Operon
trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape
Multiple alleles
a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)
4 alterations to gene structure
1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)
Codominance
both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)
Polygenic Inheritance
the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)
Krebs Cycle
Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)
Retrovirus
RNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)
Codon vs. Anticodon
codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA
Electron Transport Chain
Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O
Meiosis II
Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information
Blood Types
A: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)
Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascade
second messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)
Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio
9:3:3:1
Meiosis I
1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...
Nondisjucntion
homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II
Chloroplast structure
Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy
Prokaryotic cell division
binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation
Aneuploidy
one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 2
Lysogenic Cycle
the virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle
Translation
1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein
3 types of RNA
1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes
4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation
1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)
Steps of DNA Replication
1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand
3 stages in cell cummunication
1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response
Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)
ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)
DNA mutations
base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change
Viral Transduction
contributes to bacterial genetic variation
Testcross
breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous
Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand
works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction
Photosynthetic Equation
Linked genes phenotypic ratio
two large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)
Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)
a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase
Interphase
(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis
Provirus
a viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome
Transcription
1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)
Virus structure
nonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria
Somatic cell vs. Gamete
any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)
X Inactivation
in females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)
Calvin Cycle
Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose
Alcohol Fermentation
Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)
Light Reactions
Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH
Types of cell signaling (4)
synaptic, paracrine, hormonal
RNA processing/splicing
splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added
Polyploidy
when there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets
Examples of cell signaling
G-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)
Section 3
(48 cards)