Section 1
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Acidic
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Section 1
(50 cards)
Acidic
A solution is acidic if it contains excess hydrogen ions. It will have a pH less than 7.
Plastids
Plastids are double membrane bound organelles that temporarily store starch in plants. Plastids include chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and leucoplasts.
Amino acids
Amino acids are organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms. Every amino acid has four parts: an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group.
Fructose
Fructose is a monosaccharide that is a common sugar in fruits. It is a six-carbon sugar with the chemical formula C-6, H-12, O-6.
pH scale
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale to measure acidity, with 1 being most acidic, 14 being most basic, and 7 being neutral.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. In biology, nitrogen is important as it is found in a number of organic compounds and is used in fertilizers and antibiotics.
Covalent bond
A covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared between atoms and can be polar or non-polar.
Glycogen
Glycogen is a multi-branch polysaccharide of glucose that is the main storage of glucose in the body.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is an element with symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen combines with non-metallic elements to form water and other organic compounds.
Ionic bond
An ionic bond is formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other. In this case, one atom becomes negatively charged and one atom becomes positively charged.
Neutrons
Neutrons are uncharged subatomic particles found in an atom's nucleus.
Chemical bond
The atoms of a compound are held together by chemical bonds, which may be ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or hydrogen bonds.
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the tendency of water molecules to stick together and allows water to have a high surface tension.
Organic compounds
Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Compound
A chemical compound is formed when two or more different types of atoms are combined in a fixed ration.
Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that spin around the nucleus.
Surface tension
Surface tension is a property of water, due to the cohesiveness of its molecules, that allows things (sometimes organisms) to float and stride on its surface without sinking.
Polar covalent
A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared unequally - one atom attracts electrons more than the other.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a polysaccharide of beta glucose molecules that is a major part of the cell wall in plants and is used to lend structural support.
Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide of alpha glucose molecules bound together and is produced by most green plants as an energy store.
Polymer
A polymer is a molecule with repeating subunits of the same general type, such as polysaccharides.
Glycosidic bond
A glycosidic bond is a covalent bond in which a carbohydrate binds to another group, which could also be a carbohydrate. A glycosidic bond is found between the two glucose molecules in maltose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are made up of many repeated unites of monosaccharides, and is therefore a type of polymer. The most common polysaccharides are starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Polysaccharides are often storage forms of sugar.
Heat capacity
Heat capacity refers to the ability of a substance to store heat and is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of a substance by 1 degree. Water has a high heat capacity, allowing it to keep a fairly stable temperature in our bodies and in the environment.
Oxygen
Oxygen is an element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent. In living organisms, oxygen is used in respiration and in a number of organic molecules.
Carboxyl group
Carboxyl groups are weak acids that are common in many organic molecules including amino acids and fatty acids.
Protons
Protons are positively charged subatomic particles that are found in an atom's nucleus.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars which serve as an energy source for cells. The two most common monosaccharides are glucose and fructose.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is the opposite process of dehydration synthesis by which molecules are broken up by the addition of a water molecule, such as the formation of two glucose molecules from a maltose.
Trace elements
Trace elements are elements required by an organism in very small quantities. Trace elements include iron, iodine, and copper.
Ions
An ion is a charged form of an atom.
Elements
Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
Neutral
A solution is neutral, neither basic nor acidic, if it has a pH of 7.
Atom
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that retains its characteristic properties; they are the building blocks of the physical world.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed by two sugar molecules combining together through dehydration synthesis. An example of a disaccharide is maltose, make by linking two glucose molecules.
Basic
A solution is basic if it releases hydroxide ions when added to water. These solutions are said to be alkaline and are usually slippery.
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular attractions that form when a hydrogen bond that is covalently bonded to one electronegative atom that it also attracted to another electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonds are individually weak but are strong when present in large numbers.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in a ratio of 1:2:1.
Adhesion
Adhesion refers to the tendency of water molecules to stick to other substances, which accounts for the phenomenon of capillary action.
Isotopes
Atoms that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus are called isotopes.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the positively charged core in an atom made up of neutrons and protons.
Inorganic compounds
Inorganic compounds are compounds that do not contain carbon atoms (except for some simple carbon compounds such as carbon oxides)
Dehydration synthesis
Dehydration synthesis, or condensation, is the process by which two molecules come together by the loss of a water molecule, such as the forming of maltose from two glucose molecules.
Chemical reaction
A chemical reaction describes a chemical change in which reactants react to form products chemically different from the reactants.
Carbon
Carbon is an non mental element with symbol O and atomic number 6. It is the second most abundant element in living organisms and is present in all organic compounds.
Glucose
Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide and is a six-carbon sugar with the chemical formula C-6, H-12, O-6. Glucose comes in two forms: alpha glucose and beta glucose, which differ simply by a reversal of the H and OH of the first carbon.
Non-polar covalent
A non-polar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally between the atoms.
Capillary action
Capillary action is the ability of water, or other liquids, to travel against gravity in a thin vessel and accounts for the ability of water to rise up the roots, trunks, and branches of trees.
Polar
A molecule is polar if it has partially positive and partially negative charged ends, such as water.
Amino group
An amino group is a functional group and is found in organic compounds known as amines.
Section 2
(50 cards)
Polyunsaturated
A polyunsaturated fatty acid has many double bonds within the fatty acids.
Fats
A neutral fat is the simplest lipid and consists of three fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol, also known as a triglyceride.
Hydrophilic
A hydrophilic molecule is a molecule that mixes with water because it is polar, such as a phosphate head in a lipid.
Adhesion proteins
Adhesion proteins are membrane proteins that form junctions between adjacent cells.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are simple units that make up nucleic acids. A nucleotide consists of a nitrogen base, a phosphate group, and a five carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose).
Miller and Urey
Miller and Urey were scientists who, in 1953, simulated the conditions of primitive Earth in a laboratory. They put the gases theorized to be abundant in the early atmosphere into a flask, struck them with electrical charges in order to mimic lighting, and organic compounds similar to amino acids appeared.
Receptor proteins
Receptor proteins are membrane proteins that serve as docking sites for proteins of the extracellular matrix or hormones.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA is a nucleic acid that has a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. DNA is important because it contains genes, and it is kept in the nucleus of cells.
Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are living organism that rely on organic molecules for food, and are also known as consumers.
Electron microscopes
Electron microscopes are used to study detailed structures of a cell that cannot be easily seen or observed by light microscopy. They are capable of resolving structures a small as a few nanometers in length, such as individual virus particles or the pores on the surface of the nucleus.
Recognition and adhesion proteins
Recognition and adhesion proteins, such as glycoproteins, are exposed on the extracellular surface and play a role in cell recognition and adhesion
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
RNA is a nucleic acid that has a ribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. RNA is important because it has an essential role in protein synthesis.
Oparin and Haldane
Oparin and Haldane were two scientists who proposed in the 1920s that the primitive atmosphere contained the following gases: methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water. They believed that these gases collided, producing chemical reactions that eventually led to organic molecules.
Channel proteins
Channel proteins are membrane proteins that form channels that selectively allow the passage of certain ions or molecules.
Peptide bond
A peptide bond is the bond between two amino acids.
Neutral fats
Neutral fats are non polar, uncharged triglycerides that have no acidic or basic groups.
R group
An R-group is any group in which the carbon or hydrogen is attached to the rest of the molecule.
Carbohydrate side chains
A carbohydrate side chain is attached to the surface of some proteins found only on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a steroid that is found in the phospholipid bilayer because it helps stabilize membrane fluidity in animal cells.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. They are made up of simple units called nucleotides and include deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid.
Steriods
Steroids are a class of lipids that have a basic structure of four linked carbon rings and include cholesterol, vitamin D, and a variety of hormones.
Dipeptide
When two amino acids join they form a dipeptide. In a dipeptide, the carboxyl group of one amino acid combines with the amino group of another amino acid.
Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is a double layered structure made up of phospholipids and proteins that serves as an outer envelope for cells. In the membrane, hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inwards and hydrophilic phosphate heads face outwards. The membrane is semi-permeable and regulated the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Nucleoid
The nucleoid is the area in a prokaryotic cell in which the circular DNA molecule lies free in the cell.
Light microscopes
Light microscopes, also known as compound microscopes, are used to study stained or living cells. They can magnify the size of an organism up to 1,000 times.
Transmembrane proteins
Transmembrane proteins are integral proteins that do not extend all the way through the membrane.
Unsaturated
If a fatty acid is unsaturated it means it has adjacent carbons that are joined by double bonds instead of single bonds.
Phospholipid
Phospholipids are a class of lipids that contain two fatty acids tails and one negatively charged phosphate head. They are extremely important in their unique properties with regard to water.
Eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and cytoplasm filled with membrane bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells include fungi, protists, plant cells, and animal cells.
Flagella
Flagella are long projections on a cell used for motility. They are often found on single cell organisms but are sometimes present in larger organisms, such as on sperm.
Organelles
Organelles are small units suspended in the cytoplasm which carry out a specific function to help the cell.
Lipid
A lipid is an organic molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and includes fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids are important because they function as structural components of cell membranes, sources of insulation, and a means of energy storage.
Cells
The cell is the basic unit of structure of function in life and is what all living things are composed of.
Saturated
If a fatty acid is saturated, it means it has a single covalent bond between each pair of carbon atoms.
Hydrophobic
A hydrophobic molecule is a molecule that does not mix with water because it is non polar, such as a fatty acids.
Glycerol
Glycerol is a simple polyol (sugar alcohol) compound that is found in fats.
Side chain
Side chain is another name for an R group, and is a group of atoms attached to the main part of a molecule and having a ring or chain structure.
Amphipathic
An amphipathic molecule has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region, such as a phospholipid.
Peripheral proteins
Peripheral proteins are proteins that are loosely associated with the lipid bilayer and only temporarily attach to the membrane. They are located on the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells and lack both a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. In a prokaryote, circular DNA lies free in the nucleoid . Most prokaryotes have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and may also have ribosomes or flagella.
Ester linkage
The linkage formed between the glycerol molecule and the fatty acids in a fat is the ester linkage. This bond is formed through dehydration synthesis.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills each cell and contains the organelles. The cytoplasm is composed of water, salt, and proteins and helps contain the organelles and may have important enzymes to break down large molecules.
Autotrophs
Autotrophs, or producers, are organism that are able to make their own food using solar or chemical energy.
Integral proteins
Integral proteins are firmly bound to the plasma membrane and are amphipathic.
Functional group
A functional group is a distinctive group of atoms that play a large role in determining the chemical behavior of the compound they are a part of. In amino acids, functional groups include the carboxyl group and the amino group.
Fluid-mosaic model
The fluid-mosaic model refers to the arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in the plasma membrane of cells.
Oils
Oils are a type of lipid and are triglycerides that are liquid.
Polypeptide
If a group of amino acids are joined together in a chain, the resulting organic compound is a polypeptide, which is the primary structure of a protein.
Protein
A protein is a polypeptide, a chain of amino acids, that twists and folds on itself.
Transport proteins
Transport proteins are membrane proteins that form pumps that use ATP to actively transport solutes across the membrane.
Section 3
(50 cards)
Chromosomes
DNA is organized into large structures called chromosomes in the nucleus.
Microtubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs)
The MTOC is a structure found in eukaryotic cells from which microtubules emerge. MTOCs have two main functions: the organization of eukaryotic cilia and flagella, and the organization of the mitotic and meiotic spindle apparatus.
Tight junctions
Tight junctions are tight connections between the membrane of adjacent animal cells. They're so tight that there is no space between the cells, so they seal off body cavities and prevent leaks.
Solutes
A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent.
Simple diffusion
Simple diffusion, or passive transport, refers to the movement of substance down the concentration gradient, which uses no energy.
Gap juntions
Gap junctions are protein complexes that form channels in membranes and allow communication between the cytoplasm of adjacent animal cells or the transfer of small molecules and ions.
Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis is endocytosis during which the cell ingests liquids.
Golgi bodies
Golgi bodies , which look like stacks of flatten sacs, are organelles that participate in the processing of proteins in the cell. After the rough ER completes the synthesis of proteins, the Golgi bodies modify, process, ad sort the products. They then package and distribute the proteins to be sent out of the cell, packaging the products into vesicles.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a means of a cell engulfing a substance too large to enter the cell. Endocytosis involves the cell membrane forming a pocket, pinching in, and forming either a vacuole or a vesicle.
Sodium-potassium pump
The sodium-potassium pump is a channel protein that ushers out sodium ions and brings in potassium ions across the cell membrane, and depend on ATP to get ions across. This pump is found in neurons and skeletal muscle fibers.
Microtubules
Microtubules, which are made up of the protein tubulin, participates in cellular division and movement. These small fibers are an integral part of centrioles, cilia, and flagella.
Choloroplasts
Chloroplasts are organelles involved in photosynthesis that are possessed by plants. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, a light capturing pigment that gives plants their green color.
Enzyme-substrate complex
An enzyme-substrate complex is the term for the enzyme and substrate(s) bound together.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is a continuos channel that extends into many regions of the cytoplasm. The rough ER contains many ribosomes on its surface and generates proteins, which are then trafficked to or across the plasma membrane. The smooth ER lacks ribosomes and makes lipids, hormones, and steroids, and breaks down toxic chemicals.
Phospholipid bilayer
The phospholipid bilayer is the double layered plasma membrane that surround cells.
Endergonic reactions
Endergonic reactions are those in which the products have more energy than the reactants, so energy is required as an input.
Enzyme specificity
Enzyme specificity is the concept that each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction.
Tubulin
Tubulin is the protein of which microtubules are made up of.
Cell wall
A cell wall is a rigid layer just outside of the plasma membrane that provides support for the cell. It is found in plants, protists, bacteria, (made out of cellulose), and fungi (made out of chitin).
Facilitated transport
Facilitated transport is the movement of lipid insoluble substances across the plasma membrane through special channel proteins.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that holds the cell together and enables it to keep its shape. These fibers include microtubules and microfilaments.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are organelles that are the sites of protein synthesis - they manufacture all the proteins required by the cell or secreted by the cell. Ribosomes are round structures composed of RNA and proteins and can be either free floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Microfilaments
Microfilaments are thin, rodlike structures composed of the protein actin and are involved in cell mobility and muscle contraction.
Euglena
Euglena is a single celled flagellate in the protist kingdom.
Enzymes
Enzymes are organic catalysts, molecules that speed up the rate of a reaction without altering the reaction itself.
Cell sap
Cell sap is contained in the vacuole of mature plants and is a dilute fluid consisting of water, salts, glucose, and amino acids. Cell sap allows for storage and mechanical support in plants, especially non-woody plants.
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the most visible structure within a cell's nucleus and is where rRNA is made and ribosomes are assembled.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are organelles that carry digestive enzymes, which they use to break down old, worn out organelles, debris, or large ingested particles. The lysosomes help keep the cytoplasm clear of unwanted materials. Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes that function at acidic pH, which is enclosed inside the lumen of the lysosome.
Chitin
Chitin is a long polymer of a glucose derivative that is a principle component of the cell wall in fungi and of an arthropod's exoskeleton.
Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics is the study of how cells release the energy stored in chemical bonds holding molecules together.
Bulk flow
Bulk flow is the one way movement of fluids brought about by pressure, such as the movement of blood through a blood vessel or fluids in xylem and phloem of plants.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves cell surface receptors that are covered in clathrin-coated pits. When a particle bind to one of these receptors, the ligand is brought into the cell by the folding in of the cell membrane, forming a vesicle.
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the transportation of large particles out of the cell, by the fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane.
Centrioles
Centrioles are small, paired cylindrical structures found within microtubule organizing centers. Centrioles are most active during cellular division, during which they produce microtubules, which pull apart the replicated chromosomes. Centrioles are not found in plant cells.
Intercellular junctions
Intercellular junctions are strucutres between cells that allow neighboring cells to form strong connections with each other, prevent passage of materials, or establish rapid communication between adjacent cells. The three types of intercellular contact in animal cells are: desmosomes, gap junctions, and tight junctions.
Activation energy
Activation energy is the energy needed to begin a chemical reaction.
Active site
The active site is a region on the enzyme where the substrate binds.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion that involves the movement of water. When osmosis occurs through a lipid bilayer it moves through membrane proteins called aquaporins.
Active transport
Active transport is the movement of a substance against the concentration gradient, which required energy.
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the energy molecule used by the cell, synthesized in the mitochondria.
Cilia
Cilia are threadlike structures made out of microtubules that provide locomotive properties in single-celled organisms.
Vesicles
Vesicles are little membrane sacs which carry materials around and out of the cell.
Paramecium
Paramecium is a unicellular ciliated protozoan.
Dialysis
Dialysis is the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane.
Exergonic reactions
Exergonic reaction are those in which the products have less energy than the reactants, so energy is given off during the reaction.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are fluid-filed sacs that store water, food, wastes, salts, or pigment. They are found in both animal and plant cells, but much larger in plant cells.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria is an organelle that converts the energy from organic molecules into useful energy for the cell through cellular respiration.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is endocytosis during which the cell takes in solids.
Desmosomes
Desmosomes hold adjacent animal cells tightly to each other and consist of a pair of discs associated with the plasma membrane of adjacent cells. Intermediate filaments within and outside the cells are attached to the discs.
Substrates
Substrates are the molecules targeted by an enzyme in an enzymatic reaction
Section 4
(50 cards)
Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that energy transfer leads to less organization and the universe tends towards disorder (entropy).
Matrix
The matrix is the inner region of the mitochondria, inside the inner membrane. The citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle, takes place inside the matrix of the mitochondria.
Cofactors
Cofactors are inorganic elements that help catalyze reactions and are usually metal ions.
Entropy
Entropy is disorder, and is what the universe tends towards.
MHC markers
In the MHC system, MHC molecules bind to peptide fragment from foreign pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by T cells.
Coenzymes
Factors that assist enzymes in catalyzing a reaction are known as coenzymes. Vitamins are examples of organic coenzymes. Coenzymes accept electrons and pass them along to another substrate. NAD+ and NADP+ are two examples of such enzymes.
Anaerobic respiration
When ATP is made without oxygen, the process is called anaerobic respiration.
Outer membrane
The outer membrane is the outermost membrane in the mitochondria that protects and holds the form of the organelle.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a process performed by all organisms that produced ATP through the breakdown of nutrients. In cellular respiration, a sugar is combined with oxygen and water to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of ATP.
Cell-mediated immunity
Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, cytotoxic T-cells, and various cytokines.
Fermentation
Fermentation is the process of ATP production under anaerobic conditions. In this process, after glycolysis pyruvic acid is converted to either lactic acid or ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process also produced NAD+, which allows glycolysis to continue. This process is not very efficient, and only results in a gain of 2 ATP for each molecule of glucose broken down.
First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Inflammatory response
Inflammatory response is a defense mechanism of the immune system in which damaged or infected cells release chemicals such as histamine, which causes inflammation. Inflammation allows for increased blood flow to the area, strengthening the immune response.
Inner mitochondrial membrane
The inner mitochondrial membrane is the innermost membrane of the mitochondria. Oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis take place at the inner mitochondrial membrane, which produces ATP via the flow of protons across the membrane.
Lymph node
A lymph node is a mass of tissue found along the course of a lymph vessel that contains a large number of lymphocytes, white blood cells that attack foreign pathogens.
Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)
The Krebs Cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. In the Krebs Cycle, each of the two acetyl coenzyme A molecules enter the cycle and combine with oxaloacetate to form citric acid, which then loses two carbons as carbon dioxide. The cycle is now ready to begin again with the second Acetyl CoA. For each Acetyl CoA, the Krebs Cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2.
Feedback inhibition
Feedback inhibition is a system in which the formation of an end product inhibits an earlier reaction in the enzymatic sequence.
Competitive inhibition
Competitive inhibition is a process by which a chemical substance has a shape that fits the active site of an enzyme and competes with the substrate, effectively inhibiting the enzyme.
ATP synthase
The ATP synthase is a channel on the inner mitochondrial membrane. Protons diffuse through the ATP synthase channel, moving into the matrix of the mitochondria. The ATP synthase uses the energy from this diffusion to combine ADP and P on the matrix side of the channel, creating ATP, a process known as oxidative phosphorylation. The total number of ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation is 32 ATP.
Noncompetitive inhibition
In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds with the enzyme at a site other than the active site and inactivates the enzyme by altering its shape.
Oxaloacetate
Oxaloacetate is a four carbon molecule that combines with Acetyl CoA in the Krebs Cycle to form citric acid. This citric acid then loses two carbons as carbon dioxide, to form oxaloacetate again, so that the Krebs cycle can begin again.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis, the splitting of glucose, is the first step in aerobic respiration. During glycolysis glucose, a 6-carbon molecule, is broken into two three carbon molecules called pyruvic acid. This breakdown of glucose also results in the net production of two molecules of ATP.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a system in the body made up of a network of vessels that conduct lymph. The lymphatic system has three functions: to collect, filter, and return fluid to the blood by the contraction of adjacent muscles, to fight infection using lymphocytes, and to remove excess fluid from body tissue.
Phagocytes
A phagocyte is a type of cell that is part of the body's defense mechanism. They are cells that are capable of engulfing and eventually destroying antigens.
Antigen
An antigen is a substance that causes an immune system to produce antibodies against it. These include foreign molecules such as viruses, bacteria, or chemicals.
Cytochromes
Cytochromes are iron-containing carriers that are carrier molecules in the electron transport chain. These carrier molecules hand down electrons to the end of the chain, where they are accepted by oxygen molecules. This system releases energy which is used to pump hydrogens across the inner membrane, setting up a proton gradient responsible for the production of ATP.
Allosteric activator
Allosteric activators bind to an enzyme and induce its active form.
Lactic acid
Lactic acid is a by-product of fermentation. Two lactic acid molecules are produced for every one glucose that is broken down. Lactic acid is produced by some bacteria during anaerobic respiration and by muscles when they do not get enough oxygen.
Interferons
Interferons are a group of signaling proteins released by host cells in response to a pathogen. They inhibit viral replication and activate surrounding cells that have antiviral actions.
Complement proteins
Complement proteins are proteins that lyse the cell wall of an antigen. They are part of the nonspecific defense mechanisms of the immune system.
Aerobic respiration
When ATP is made in the presence of oxygen, the process is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration consists of four stages: Glycolysis, formation of acetyl CoA, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
pH gradient (proton gradient)
The energy released from the electron transport chain is used to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane to the inter-membrane space. The pumping of hydrogen ions into the inter-membrane space creates a pH gradient, in which the inter-membrane space has a high hydrogen concentration and the matrix has a low hydrogen concentration. This gradient establishes the potential energy responsible for the production of ATP, as hydrogen molecules diffuse through the ATP synthase.
Pyruvic acid
Pyruvic acid is a 3 carbon molecule produced by the splitting of a glucose in glycolysis. Pyruvate is important because it goes on to be broken down into acetyl CoA.
Acetyl coenzyme A
When oxygen is present, pyruvic acid is transported to the mitochondrion, where each pyruvic acid is converted into acetyl coenzyme A, a two carbon molecule. Two Acetyl CoA are produced from two pyruvic acid. Acetyl CoA then moves to the Krebs Cycle, where it combines with oxaloacetate to form citric acid.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process that involves the transformation of solar energy into chemical energy. Plants take carbon dioxide, water, and energy (in the form of sunlight) and use them to produce glucose.
Major histocompatibility complex
The MHC is a set of cell surface proteins essential for acquired immune system to recognize foreign cells.
Immune system
The immune system is one of the body's defense systems - a carefully coordinated system of specialized cells to protect the body from foreign threats.
Induced fit
Induced fit refers to when an enzyme has to change its shape slightly to accommodate the shape of the substrates.
Inter-membrane space
The inter-membrane space is the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane. In cellular respiration, hydrogen atoms are pumped across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the inter-membrane space, creating a proton gradient that is responsible for the production of ATP.
Allosteric regulators
Allosteric regulators are substances that can either inhibit or activate enzymes and that bind at the allosteric site.
Pathogen
A pathogen is a disease-causing agent that activates an immune response in the body.
Memory T-cells
Once activated, T cells multiply and give rise to clone cells, some of which become memory T-cells. Memory T-cells recognize pathogen they have encountered before, allowing for a quicker immune response in a second exposure.
Allosteric inhibitor
Allosteric inhibitors bind to an allosteric site and keep the enzyme in its inactive form.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation refers to the process by which ATP synthase uses the flow of protons into the matrix to combine ADP and P, producing ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation produces 32 ATP.
Helper T-cells
Helper T-cells activate B-lymphocytes and other T-cells in responding to the infected cells.
Citric acid
Citric acid, or citrate, is a six carbon molecule formed in the Krebs cycle by the joining of an Acetyl CoA molecule with an oxaloacetate. Citric acid then loses two carbons, in the form of carbon dioxide, to become oxaloacetate again.
Lymph
Lymph is a clear, watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid that runs in networks of vessels as part of the lymphatic system. Lymph contains white blood cells that attack bacteria in the blood.
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are small white blood cells present in the lymphatic system that fight infection. They multiple rapidly when they come in contact with a foreign substance.
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
Ethyl alcohol is a by-product of fermentation. Two ethyl alcohol molecules are produced for every one glucose that is broken down. Yeast cells and some bacteria make ethanol and carbon dioxide during anaerobic respiration.
Allosteric sites
An allosteric site is a region of the enzyme other than the active site to which a substance can bind, and can regulate enzymatic activity.
Section 5
(50 cards)
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is an important neurotransmitter that is released between neurons within the central nervous system.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a part of the brain that coordinates muscle activity and refinement of movement.
Repolarized
Once sodium ions have flooded the neuron, the sodium channels close. At this point, the potassium channels open and the potassium ions rush out of the axon, and the electrical changes reverse again, so it is negative on the inside, and positive on the outside. Once the charges are restores, the section of the neuron is said to be repolarized.
Nerve net
The nerve net is a system made up of a network of nerve cells, the impulse of which travels in both directions. The nerve net is the simplest nervous system found in simple animals such as hydra.
Acetylcholinesterase
Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down extra acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft.
Acetylecholine
Acetylcholine is an important neurotransmitter that is released from the end of an axon when calcium ions move into the terminal end of the axon. Acetylcholine is picked up almost instantly by the dendrites of the the next neuron. It can stimulate muscles to contract or inhibit postsynaptic potential. Acetylcholine is released between neurons in the parasympathetic system.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that regulate homeostasis, secretes hormones, and regulates the pituitary gland.
Polarized
In a resting neuron cell, there is a potential difference between the inside and the outside of the cell. The resting membrane potential is always negative inside the cell, with a -70 mV charge. This polarized cell is the result of Na-K-ATPase pumps that pump 2 potassium ions into the cell and 3 sodium ions out of the cell.
Threshold
The threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus a neuron needs to respond.
Schwann cells
Schwann cells are cells that wrap around the neuron and produce a substance called the myelin sheath, which insulates the axon.
Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons receive impulses from the environment and bring them to the body. For example, they can be stimulated by touch.
Refractory period
The refractory period is the period after an action potential. During this period, sodium channels are reset and are able to open, but the cell membrane potential is further from the threshold and a great stimulus is required to reach the threshold.
Cytotoxic T-cells
Cytotoxic T-cells are a type of T-cells that recognize and kill infected cells.
Action potential
Action potential is a change in the membrane potential that produces a nerve impulse. Action potential is an all-or-none response; it doesn't fire "part way," and generally must reach -55mV to produce a response.
Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic system that controls the "flight-or-fight" response in organisms.
AIDS
AIDS, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, is a devastating disease that interferes with the body's immune system. AIDS is caused by the infection of helper T cells by HIV, which destroys the T cells and prevents the body from defending itself.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is a part of the brain that controls all voluntary activities and receives and interprets sensory information. It is the largest part of the brain and consists of outer gray matter (cerebral cortex) and inner white matter.
Dendrites
Dendrites are short extensions of the cell body that receive stimuli.
Neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a chemical released by an axon into the space between the two neuron, called the synapse. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron, usually triggering an action potential.
Nodes of Ranvier
The Nodes of Ranvier are the spaces between myelin sheaths - the exposed regions of the axon.
Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath is a substance produced by Schwann cells surrounding a neuron. Myelin sheath insulates the neuron and allows for a quicker propagation of an impulse, since the impulse can now jump from node to node.
T-lymphocytes
T-lymphocytes are cells that fight infection and help the B-lymphocytes proliferate.
Sodium-potassium pump
After a part of the neuron has been repolarized, the charges are in their original state, but the ions are on the wrong side of the axonal membrane, with potassium outside and sodium inside. The neuron reestablishes the order of the ions with the sodium-potassium pump, which pumps two potassium ions inside the axon for every three sodium ions it pumps out.
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands are specialized organs that secrete hormones in to the bloodstream, where they are carried throughout the body.
Ganglia
Ganglia are clumps of nerve cells similar to primitive brains that develop in animals that are more complex.
Medulla
The medulla is the part of the brain that controls involuntary actions such as breathing, swallowing heartbeat, and respiration.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary activities, such as the digestive system or heartbeats.
GABA
GABA is an important neurotransmitter that is secreted in the central nervous system and acts as an inhibitor.
Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system includes al neurons lying outside the brain and the spinal cord - in our skin, our organs, and our blood vessels.
Central nervous system
The central nervous system includes all of the neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
Axon bulb
The axon bulb is the area at the end of the axon, where signal transmission to the next neutron occurs.
Thalamus
The thalamus is the main sensory relay center for conducting information between the spinal cord and cerebrum.
"Flight-or-fight" response
The flight-or-fight response is a response that occurs when an organism confronted with a threatening situation prepares to fight or flee. This response is controlled by the sympathetic system. This response includes rising heart and respiration rates, constriction of blood vessels, increase in the levels of glucose in your body, and "goose bumps" on your skin.
Parasympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic system that works antagonistically to the sympathetic nervous system, returning the body to homeostasis after a stress response.
Axon
The axon is a long, slender extension that transmits an impulse from the cel body to another neuron or to an organ.
Interneurons
Interneurons are links between sensory neurons and motor neurons, found in the brain or spinal cord.
Cell body
The cell body is a part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles found in the cytoplasm.
Motor (effector) neurons
Motor neurons transmit the impulse to muscles or glands to produce a response. The muscle will respond by contracting, or the gland will respond by secreting a substance.
Corpus callosum
The corpus callosum is a thick band of nerve fibers of the white matter that enable the right and left side of the cerebral hemispheres to communicate.
B-lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes are cells that mature in the bone marrow and are involved in the humoral response, which defends the body against pathogens present in extracellular fluids. B cells produce antibodies that bind to the antigens on the surface of pathogens.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is outer gray matter of the cerebrum that plays an important role in consciousness.
Depolarization
At the point where the axon connects to the cell body, gated sodium ion channels open up and allow sodium ions to rush into the cell, making the inside of the cell more positive than the outside, a change known as depolarization.
Neurons
Neurons are specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit nerve signals. A neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The three types of neurons are sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
Pons
The pons connects parts of the brain with one another and contains respiratory center.
Saltatory conduction
Saltatory conduction is the form of conduction of an impulse involving myelin sheaths. In this form the impulse can jump form node to node, instead of the standard "domino effect," therefore speeding up the impulse.
Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary activities.
Midbrain
The midbrain is the center for visual and auditory reflexes (pupil reflex and blinking).
Hormones
Hormones are chemicals that are produced in one region of the body to act on target cells in another region. Hormones are produced in endocrine glands. Hormones have a number of functions including regulating growth, behavior, development, and reproduction.
Synapse
The synapse is the space between two neurons where the neurotransmitter is diffused across.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to the stable conditions of your body, including steady heart and respiratory rates. The parasympathetic system works to keep the body at homeostasis.
Section 6
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Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism is a condition that occurs in individuals who regularly release too much thyroxine. These people have a fast metabolic rate and tend to be irritable and nervous.
Bone remodeling
Bone remodeling refers to the process of building or breaking down bones to store and release calcium and involves the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.
Parathyroids
The parathyroids are four little pea-shaped organs that rest on the thyroid. They secrete parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium levels.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates follicles in the ovaries to grow.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine, which is responsible for the regulation of metabolism.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that works closely with the pituitary, regulating the anterior pituitary by secreting neurohormones that can stimulate or inhibit the actions of the anterior pituitary.
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that causes the release oft he ovum during the menstrual cycle in females, and testosterone production in males.
Mineralocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids are hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that help the body retain sodium and water in the kidneys. They accomplish this by promoting the reabsorption of sodium and chlorine, which together from common salt. When salt is absorbed, so it water.
Fallopian tube
The fallopian tubes are a part of the female reproductive system to which the ovum travels during ovulation and are the site of fertilization. They are also known as oviducts.
Brain hormone
Brain hormone is an insect hormone that targets ecdysone to be released in the prothoracic glands.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates the follicle to grow in females, and spermatogenesis in males.
Ecdysone
Ecdysone is a hormone that is promotes molting and the metamorphosis of a larva to a butterfly.
Epinephrine
Epinephrine is a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla. Together with norepinephrine, epinephrine is responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response. Epinephrine increases heart rate, metabolic rate, and blood pressure.
Negative feedback system (hormones)
Hormones operate by a negative feedback system. That is, an excess of the hormone will signal the endocrine gland to temporarily shut down production.
Juvenile hormone
Juvenile hormone is a hormone that causes larvae to retain their characteristics; the concentration of this hormone decreases as the larva undergoes metamorphosis.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin is a hormone secretes by the thyroid. This hormone decreases blood concentration of calcium by concentrating free-floating calcium in the bones.
Amine
Hormones that are amines cannot get into a cell by simple diffusion, and must bind to a receptor protein on the cell membrane of the target cell.
Pituitary
The pituitary land is called the master gland because it releases many hormones that reach other glands and stimulate them to release their own hormones. The pituitary gland has two parts: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Human chorionic gonadotropin is a hormone produced by an embryo following implantation. The hormone helps maintain the uteral lining during pregnancy. The presence of HCG is detected in pregnancy tests.
Follicular phase
The follicular phase is a phase in the menstrual cycle during which FSH stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovary, one of which will dominate the others and eventually be the only one growing. During this phase, the growing follicle releases estrogen, which leads to a surge of LH, which triggers ovulation, making the follicle burst and release the ovum into the fallopian tube. The follicular phase also involves the thickening of the uterine walls in preparation for the implantation of a fertilized cell. This entire phase lasts about 10 days.
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone is released by parathyroids and it increases blood calcium levels if the blood needs more calcium. Thus, the parathyroid hormone has the opposite effect as calcitonin.
Glucagon (alpha cell)
Glucagon is a hormone secreted by the pancreas. Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and stimulates the liver to convert glycogen into glucose and to release that glucose into the blood. Glucagon therefore increases the levels of glucose in the blood, raising the blood sugar level.
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
When a hormone binds to a receptor protein on the cell membrane of a target cell, the protein stimulates the production of a second messenger called cyclic AMP. The cAMP molecule then triggers various enzymes, leading to a specific cellular change.
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland, which is located in the neck, is the target organ of the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). When the thyroid is stimulated by TSH, it releases the hormone thyroxine, which is responsible for regulating the metabolic rates in body tissue.
Progesterone
Progesterone is a sex hormone that is released by the ovaries that regulate the menstrual cycle.
Luteal Phase
Luteal stage During the luteal stage, the ovum has moved into the fallopian tube and the follicle has been ruptured and left behind in the ovary. The ruptured follicle (now a fluid filled sac) continues to function in the menstrual cycle, condensing into a little yellow blob called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum continues to secrete estrogen and begins to produce progesterone, which gets the body ready for pregnancy by promoting the growth of glands and blood vessels in the endometrial. This stage lasts about 13 to 15 days, until the corpus luteum shuts down.
Menstruation
Menstruation, or the flow phase, is a phase of the menstrual cycle that occurs after the corpus luteum has turned off. During this phase the uterus starts to reabsorb the tissue that the progesterone encouraged it to grow. Some of the tissue cannot be reabsorbed and is shed, through bleeding.
Islets of Langerhans
The islets of Langerhans are clusters of cells in the pancreas that produce insulin and glucagon. The alpha cells produce glucagon and the beta cells produce insulin.
Growth hormone (GH)
Growth hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth throughout the body, targeting bones and muscles.
Ova
Ova are egg cells that are manufactured in the ovaries. During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovaries and travels to the fallopian tubes, where it may be fertilized.
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism is a condition that occurs in individuals who have too little thyroxine circulating in their bloodstream. They exhibit a slow metabolic rate and tend to be sluggish and overweight.
Thyroxine
Thyroxine is a hormone secreted by the thyroid that contain iodine and is responsible for regulating metabolic rates in body tissue.
Uterine wall/ Endometrium
The uterine wall, or endometrium, is the inner mucous membrane of the mammalian uterus. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle the endometrium thickens in preparation for the implantation of a fertilized cell. In the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, progesterone promotes the growth of glands and blood vessels in the endometrium in preparation for pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilized, some of the tissue that the progesterone encouraged to grow on the uterine wall is shed and bled out.
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Luteinizing hormone is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to an increase in estrogen released by the follicle in the ovary. An increase in estrogen causes a sudden surge in LH which triggers ovulation - the release of the follicle from the ovary.
Estrogen
Estrogen is a sex hormone that is released by the ovaries that regulate the menstrual cycle.
Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
Antidiuretic hormone is a hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary that regulates water intake by nephrons in the kidney. This hormone is made in the hypothalamus, but stored in the posterior pituitary.
Target cells
Target cells are the specific cells that a hormone effects.
Ovulation
Ovulation refers to the release of the follicle from the ovary and is triggered by the hormone luteinizing hormone. After being released, the ovum travels into the fallopian tubes.
Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that increase the blood's concentration of glucose and help the body adapt to stress. It does this by promoting the conversion of amino acids and fatty acids to glucose.
Posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary is a part of the pituitary gland that secretes two hormones: antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin.
Glycogen
Glycogen is a multi-branched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as an energy store. Glycogen is stored in the liver and can easily be converted to glucose. Glucagon stimulates an increase of glycogen into glucose while insulin stimulates an increase of glucose into glycogen.
Pheromones
Pheromones are hormones that help animals to communicate with members of their species and attract the opposite sex.
Corpus luteum
During the luteal phase of menstruation, the ruptured follicle condenses into a little yellow blob called the corpus luteum, which is Latin for "yellow body." The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone, to promote the growth of glands and blood vessels in the endometrium to ready the body for pregnancy. Progesterone is important because without it the fertilized ovum cannot latch onto the uterus and develop into an embryo.
Adrenal cortex
The adrenal cortex is an endocrine gland that is part of the adrenal glands. The adrenal cortex is targeted by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and secrete its different hormones. The adrenal cortex releases two types of hormones: glucocorticoids, to lower blood sugar, and mineralocorticoids, to help the body retain sodium and water in the kidneys.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
Anterior pituitary
The anterior pituitary is a part of the pituitary gland that secretes six hormones, three of which regulate growth and other organs and three of which are involved in regulating the reproductive system. The hormones of the anterior pituitary are growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary that stimulates contraction of uterus and ducts of mammary glands. This hormone is made in the hypothalamus, but stored in the posterior pituitary.
Insulin (beta cell)
Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas, where it is made by beta cells. Insulin targets the liver and muscle cells and has the opposite effect that glucagon does; insulin stimulates the liver to convert glucose into glycogen, lowering the blood sugar level.
Testosterone
Testosterone is a male sex hormone responsible for promoting spermatogenesis. Testosterone also maintains secondary sex characteristics.
Prolactin
Prolactin is a hormone produce in the anterior pituitary that stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk.
Section 7
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Epididymis
The epididymis is a highly convoluted duct behind the testis, where the spermatids mature and then pass to the van deferens.
Biogeography
Biogeography, or the study of the distribution of flora and fauna, have revealed a number of related species in widely separated regions of the world, supporting the theory of a common ancestor.
Evolution
Evolution is the process by which living organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Evidence for evolution includes: paleontology, biogeography, embryology, molecular biology, and comparative anatomy.
Morula
After a number of cell divisions, the fertilized egg (zygote) becomes a solid ball of cells called a morula.
Chorion
The chorion is the outermost extra-embryonic membrane that surrounds all the other extra-embryonic membranes.
Analogous structures
Analogous structures are animal features that have the same function but are structurally different, such as a bat's wing and an insect's wing. These strucutres evolved independently of one another.
Sperm cells
Sperm cells are produced by the testes when they are stimulated by testosterone.
Vas deferens
The vas deferens is the duct that conveys sperm from the testicle to the urethra.
Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. In males, testosterone and cortical sex hormones, is responsible for the development of the voice and secondary sex characteristics, such as the deepening of the voice, facial and body hair, and muscle growth.
Homeobox genes
Homeobox genes are a type of homeotic gene that consists of homeoboxes (short, nearly identical DNA sequences) that encode proteins that bind to DNA; these proteins tell cells in various segments of the developing embryo what type of structures to make.
Embryology
Embryology is the study of the development of an organism. In the early stages of vertebrate development, all embryos look alike, supporting the theory of evolution.
Morphogenesis
Morphogenesis is the process by which a single celled egg develops into a complex, multicellular organism.
Fetus
After an embryo matures to about 4 weeks, it is referred to as a fetus.
Cleavage
Fertilization triggers the zygote to undergo a series of rapid cell divisions, by mitosis, called cleavage.
Paleontology
Paleontology, or the study of fossils, has revealed the great variety of organisms (most of which have died off) and the major lines of evolution.
Random mutation
Random mutations are the random changes in the genes of individuals, which allows for genetic variability and evolution to occur.
Induction
Induction is the process in embryonic development by which the presence of one tissue determines the differentiation of another tissue.
Genetic variability
The genetic differences in every individual is known as genetic variability. The survival of a species is dependent on genetic variation, since it allows a population to survive in a changing environment.
Adaptation
An adaptation is a trait that improved an individuals fitness, and is favored by natural selection. These adaptions are likely to be passed on to the next generation.
Blastocoel
The blasocoel is the fluid filled cavity inside a blastula.
Umbilical chord
The umbilical chord is an organ that is an outgrowth of extra-embryonic membranes in placental mammals and connects the embryo to the placenta.
Differentiation
Differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type, through homeotic genes.
Molecular biology
The similarities of organisms at the molecular level is compelling evidence of evolution. Scientists have observed that organisms that are closely related have a greater proportion of DNA sequence sin common than distantly related species.
Seminal vesicles
While in the vas deferens, sperm picks up fluids from the seminal vesicles which provides them with fructose for energy.
Seminiferous tubules
Seminiferous tubes are the main tissues of the testes and are where spermatogonia undergo meiosis.
Zygote
When an egg is fertilized by a sperm, it forms a diploid cell called a zygote. A zygote has 46 chromosomes, while the egg and sperm have 23 each.
Organizers
Organizers are cells that release a chemical substance (a morphogen) that moves from one tissue to the target tissue. Organizers are involved in induction in embryonic development.
Homeotic genes
Homeotic genes control the development of the embryo and include homeobox genes that tell cells in the developing embryo what type of structure to make.
Gastrulation
During gastrulation, the zygote begins to change its shape. Cells now migrate into the blastocoel and differentiate to form three germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer). The ectoderm produces the epidermis, eyes, and the nervous system. The endoderm produces the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory tract as well as accessory organs such as the pancreas, gall bladder, and liver. The mesoderm gives rise to everything else, including bones and muscles.
Homologous structures
Homologous structures are similar structures that serve different functions, such as a human's arm, a dog's leg, a bird's wing, and a whale's fin, which look similar but serve different purposes. Homologous structures point to a common ancestor and support evolution.
Fertilization
For fertilization to occur, the sperm must dissolve the corona radiata, a dense covering of follicle cells that surrounds the egg. Then the sperm must penetrate the zona pellucida, the zone below the corona radiata. When the egg is fertilized it forms a diploid cell called a zygote and undergoes a series of rapid cell division.
Prostate gland
While traveling through the vas deferens, sperm picks up fluids from the prostate gland which provides an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the vagina's acidic fluids.
Neurula
The neurula stage of embryo development begins with the formation of the notochord and the neural tube cells, which are part of the development of a nervous system.
Allantois
The allantois is an extra-embryonic membrane that is involved in gas exchange and stores uric acid.
Amnion
The amnion is an extra-embryonic membrane that forms a fluid-filled sac that protects the embryo.
Blastula
As the cells in the morula continue to divide, they press against each other and produce a fluid filled cavity called a blastocoel.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin was a 19th century British naturalist who sailed the world in a ship named the HMS Beagle. Darwin developed his theory of evolution based on natural selection after studying animals in the Galapagos Islands, and his work forms the basis of what we know about evolution. In his book entitled "On the Origin of Species," Darwin observed the following: Each species produces more offspring than can survive; these offspring compete with one another for limited resources; organism in every population vary; the fittest offspring, those with the most favorable traits, are most likely to survive and pass on their traits.
Natural selection
Natural selection is the driving force of evolution and refers to the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype and general fitness.
Placenta
The placenta is an outgrowth of extra-embryonic membranes in placental mammals that is the organ that provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of the fetus's waste. The placenta develops from both the chorion and the uterine tissue of the mother.
Embryo
An embryo is an organism in the early stages of development, and is used to describe an unborn baby up until the 8th week, at which point it is referred to as a fetus. Immediately after fertilization, the zygote undergoes rapid division and becomes a recognizable embryo at around 4 weeks.
Interstitial cells
Interstitial cells are supporting tissue in the testis that produce testosterone and other androgens.
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck was an 18th century scientist who proposed a theory explaining the variety of life on Earth. Lamarck believed that acquired traits were inherited and passed on to offspring, a theory referred to as the "law of use and disuse." This theory was very popular in Darwin's day, although we now know it to be wrong.
Extra-embryonic membranes
In addition to the primary germ layers, some animals, such as chickens, have extra-embryonic membranes. The four extra-embryonic membranes include: the yolk sac, amnion, chorion, and allantois. These extra membranes are common in birds and reptiles.
Yolk sac
The yolk sac is an extra-embryonic membrane that provides food for the embryo.
Comparative anatomy
Comparative anatomy is the study of the anatomy of various animals and has revealed similar structures in a wide variety of animals, supporting the theory of evolution.
Morphogen
Morphogen is a chemical substance released by organizer cells that moves form one tissue to the target tissue, helping with induction in a developing embryo.
Hox genes
Hox genes are a subset of homeobox genes that specify the position of body parts in the developing embryo.
Apoptosis
Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, plays a crucial role in normal differentiation and development. For example, in a human embryo, apoptosis allows for the removal of tissue between newly developing fingers and toes.
Notochord
The notochord is a rod shaped structure running beneath the nerve cord that is formed during the neurula stage and is important in the development of the nervous system.
Neutral tube
The neural tube cells are cells formed during the neurula stage that develop into the central nervous system.
Section 8
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Tertiary consumers
Stabilizing selection
In stabilizing selection, organisms in a population with extreme traits are eliminated, favoring organisms with common traits. An example is birth weight in humans; abnormally small or large babies have a lower chance of surviving both and infancy.
Population
Allopatric speciation
Allopatric speciation refers to speciation when part of a population is physically separated from the rest by a geographic barrier and therefore they cannot interbreed.
Gravitropism
Hardy-Weinberg law
The Hardy-Weinberg law states that even with all the shuffling of genes that goes on, the relative frequencies of genotypes in a population still prevail over time; the dominant gene doesn't become more prevalent and the recessive gene doesn't disappear. The Hardy-Weinberg law only applies if a population meets five conditions: large population, no mutations, no immigration or emigration, random mating, and no natural selection.
Fixed action pattern
A fixed action pattern is a particular type of innate behavior that is not a simple reflex, but no a conscious decision. An example is the egg-rolling behavior exhibited by the graylag goose. If the egg is removed form the goose, it will continue to make the same movement.
Insight
Habituation
Agnostic behavior
Associative learning
Ecosystem
10% rule
Behavior
Behavior is the way that organisms cope with their environments. Some animals behave in a programmed way to specific stimuli, while other behave according to some type of learning. The general types of behavior are: instinct, imprinting, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and insight.
Community
Phermomoness
Circadian rythyms
Pre-zygotic barriers
Pre-zygotic barriers are barriers that prevent fertilization, which could be geographic or behavioral differences, such as if two species reproduce at different times of the year, which is known as temporal isolation.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is a phenomenon that occurs in small population during which a gene pool will change over time by random chance. Genetic drift often occurs with the founder effect, when a small group of organisms moved to a new location, or the bottleneck effect, when a populations size is greatly and randomly reduced. Genetic drift is a violation of the Hardy-Weinberg law.
Directional selection
In directional selection, one phenotype is favored at one of the extremes of normal distribution.
Imprinting
Classical conditioning
Herbivores
Secondary consumers
Species
A species is a group of organisms having many physical and behavior characteristics in common and are able to interbreed to produce fertile and viable offspring.
Speciation
Speciation refers to the emergence of anew species by evolution.
Dominance hierarchy
Sympatric speciation
Sympatric speciation refers to speciation that does not involve geographic barriers, and is common in plants.
Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution is the process by which two unrelated and dissimilar species come to have similar (analogous) traits, often because they have been exposed to similar selective pressures.
Instinct
Instinct is an inborn, unlearned behavior. Sometimes instinctive behavior is triggered by environmental signals called releasers - a small part of the environment that is perceived.
Territoriality
Primary consumers
Disruptive selection
In disruptive selection, extreme traits are favored and natural selection works against common traits. For example, in elephant seals, females are selected to be small and males are selected to be large.
Reasoning
Carbon cycle
Biomes
Tropism
Photperiodism
Operant conditionaing
Ecology
Ecology is the study of the interactions between living things and their environments.
Divergent evolution
Divergent evolution is the evolution of a new species from a current population, often as a result of geographic division.
Biosphere
Food chain
Phototropism
Altruistic behavior
Niche
Critical period
Learning
Learning is a form of behavior that refers to a change in a behavior brought about y an experience.
Thigmotropism
Post-zygotic barriers
Post-zygotic barriers are barriers related to the inability of the hybrid to produce offspring, such as the sterile mule.
Section 9
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