Section 1
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metonymy
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Section 1
(50 cards)
metonymy
A term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," it is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims "the White House declared . . ." rather than "the President declared . . ." is using this device. Shakespeare uses it to signify male and female genders, respectively, in As You Like It: "doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat." The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
prose
one of the major divisions of genre, this refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In this, the printer determines the length of the line; in the contrasting division of genre, poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.
denotation
The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the _________________ of knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)
caricature
a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.
irony/ironic
the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. It is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types used in language: (1) verbal - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning, (2) situational - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen, and (3) dramatic - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
analogy
a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. It can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. They can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.
hyperbole
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") These often have a comic effect; however a serious effect is also possible. Often, it produces irony. The opposite is understatement.
rhetoric
From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of communicating (especially through writing) effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
figurative language
Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.
didactic
From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." These types of words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.
repetition
The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
inference/infer
to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for one to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable choice is the safest. If an option is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated in the text, it CANNOT be this and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation--negative or positive-- of the choices when making your decision.
parody
A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.). Well-written examples offer enlightenment about the original, but poorly written examples offer only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being imitated in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, they take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.
imagery
The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, it uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, it can call to mind more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual _______________ while also calling to mind the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex ______________ while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates it, as well as its overall effect.
mood
The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect it. It is similar to tone and atmosphere.
pedantic
an adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as "show-offy"; using big words for the sake of using big words and sounding smart--try not to do this in your own writing!)
invective
An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character Falstaff "this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh"--hardly a compliment!)
colloquial/colloquialism
the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, they give a work a conversational, familiar tone. These expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
onomatopoeia
a figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of this in a text, be sure to note the effect created.
atmosphere
the emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to it. Frequently it foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.
allusion
a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. They can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers. Footnotes are often used (although not guaranteed!) to explain them in test passages.
sarcasm
From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," this involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are this (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, it can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
anaphora
a sub-type of parallelism where the exact repetition of words or phrases are used at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.
allegory
the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. This type of meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Ex. Animal Farm and Plato's Cave
litotes (pronounced similarly to "little tee")
a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite; opposite of hyperbole. Ex: "not a bad idea," "not many," "it isn't very serious: I have this tiny tumor on the brain" (the last is Salinger's Catcher in the Rye)
paradox
A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times . . .")
alliteration
the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells seas shells"). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, your can look for it in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.
apostrophe
A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." Another example is Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: "Thou still unravished bride of quietness." Many of these imply a personification of the object addressed.
diction
Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's __________ (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which it can complement the author's purpose. This, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.
point of view
In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of this element, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge (omni = all; science = knowledge), presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person limited, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that this term carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze this, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude, specifically toward his or her subject, i.e. tone!
rhetorical modes
This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as "modes of discourse") are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to expalin and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam rhetorical analysis questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion , and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that begin described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This type of writing frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing as well.
oxymoron
From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," it is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with its use.
homily
This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
metaphor
a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. This kind of language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and emotionally resonant.
periodic sentence
The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a this type of sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)
aphorism
a terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) It can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
generic conventions
This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.
conceit
a fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. It displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison begin made.
euphemism
From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. It may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example.
extended metaphor
A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
clause
a grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent or main one expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent or subordinate one cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent one. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element; you should also be aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.
genre
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, the term is flexible; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called by the same term. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) and nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following categories: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry, but it is less likely.
figure of speech
A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. These include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement
antithesis
the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite
parallelism
Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, Dickens nailed it: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity...."). Its effects are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
connotation
the non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. They may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
narrative
the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events
antecedent
the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the ____________ of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 test as an example follows: "But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; IT exists eternally, by the way of germ of latest principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed by never to be planted." (the __________ of IT--all caps--is "all truth")
loose sentence/non-periodic/cumulative sentence
a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many of these often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, these create a "loose" style. The opposite of one is a periodic sentence. Example: "I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays." Could have stopped after "I arrived at the San Diego airport," but didn't.
ambiguity
the multiple meanings--either intentional or unintentional--of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
Section 2
(16 cards)