Section 1
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Amicus curiae brief
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Cards (328)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Amicus curiae brief
Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filed by an individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
Chief of staff
The head of the White House staff.
civil liberties
protections against government power embodied in the bill of rights and similar legislation. include the right to free speech, exercise of religion, and right to fair trial.
bicameral
consisting of two legislative houses. (house of representatives and senate)
Categorical-formula grants
Congress appropriates funds for a specific purpose, such as school lunches or for building airports and highways. These funds are allocated by formula and are subject to detailed federal conditions, often on a matching basis; that is, the local government receiving the federal funds must put up some of its own dollars. Categorical grants, in addition, provide federal supervision to ensure that the federal dollars are spent as Congress wants.
Bicameralism
The principle of a two-house legislature.
Cabinet
Advisory council for the president consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the vice president, and a few other officials selected by the president.
Bundling
A tactic in which PACs collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $2000) and present them to a candidate or political party as a "bundle," thus increasing the PAC's influence.
Central clearance
Review of all executive branch testimony, reports, and draft legislation by the Office of Management and Budget to ensure that each communication to Congress is in accordance with the president's program.
Australian ballot
A secret ballot printed by the state.
Bipartisanship
A policy that emphasizes a united front and cooperation between the major political parties, especially on sensitive foreign policy issues.
"Our federalism"
Championed by Ronald Reagan, presumes that the power of the federal government is limited in favor of the broad powers reserved to the states.
Antitrust legislation
Federal laws (starting with the Sherman Act of 1890) that tried to prevent a monopoly from dominating an industry and restraining trade.
Civil disobedience
Deliberate refusal to obey law or comply with orders of public officials as a means of expressing opposition.
Administrative discretion
Authority given by Congress to the Federal bureaucracy to use reasonable judgment in implementing the laws.
Centralists
People who favor national action over action at the state and local levels.
Civil law
A law that governs relationships between individuals and defines their legal rights.
broad constructionism
belief that the constitution should be interpreted loosely when concerning the restrictions it places on federal power. emphasize the elastic clause/"necessary and proper"
bill of rights
first 10 amendments to the US constitution. guarantees personal liberties and limits the powers of the government.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)
Largely banned party soft money, restored a long-standing prohibition on corporations and labor unions for using general treasury funds for electoral purposes, and narrowed the definition of issue advocacy.
527 Organization
A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general election in which clearly identified candidate is referred to and a relevant electorate is targeted.
Articles of Confederation
The first governing document of the confederated states drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781, and replaced by the present Constitution in 1789.
amendment
addition to the constitution. require approval by two-thirds of both houses of congress and three-quarters of the states. the first 10 make up the bill of rights.
Bill of attainder
Legislative act inflicting punishment, including deprivation of property, without a trial, on named individuals or members of a specific group.
census
a process mandated by the constitution by which the population of the US is officially counted every 10 years. data is used to help distribute federal money and to reapportion congressional districts.
Candidate appeal
How voters feel about a candidate's background, personality, leadership ability, and other personal qualities.
blanket primary
primary election in which voters may select a candidate from any party for each office. use the same procedure as general elections.
Affirmative action
Remedial action designed to overcome the effects of discrimination against minorities and women.
Bureaucrat
A career government employee.
brown v. board of education
1954 case in which supreme court ruled to overturn the "seperate but equal" standard as it applied to education.
categorical grants
federal aid give to states with strings attached. states must adhere to federally mandated guidelines for spending it.
Caucus
A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform.
Appellate jurisdiction
The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.
budget resolution
set of budget guidelines that must pass both houses of congress in identical form by april 15. guides govt spending for the following fiscal year.
amicus curiae briefs
"friend of the court" briefs that qualified individuals or organizations file in lawsuits to which they are not a party, so the judge may consider their advice in respect to matters of law that directly affect the cases in question.
Checks and balances
Constitutional grant of powers that enables each of the three branches of government to check some acts of the others and therefore ensure that no branch can dominate.
budget deficit
condition that arises when federal expenditures exceed revenues.
Block grants
These are broad state grants to states for prescribed activities—welfare, child care, education, social services, preventive health care, and health services—with only a few strings attached. States have greater flexibility in deciding how to spend block grant dollars, but when the federal funds for any fiscal year are gone, there are no more matching federal dollars.
Annapolis Convention
A convention held in September 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention.
Bureaucracy
A form of organization that operates through impersonal, uniform rules and procedures.
Antifederalists
Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government, generally.
Adversary system
A judicial system in which the court of law is a neutral arena where two parties argue their differences.
Capitalism
"An economic system characterized by private property economic incentives and limited government involvement in the production distribution and pricing of goods and services. "
"Necessary and proper" clause
Clause in the Constitution that states that "Congress should have the power to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers. . . ." This clause is also known as the elastic clause as is a major and significant power of Congress, granting Congress the ability to interpret its lawmaking ability in a broad manner.
bread and butter issues
those political issues are specifically directed at the daily concerns of most working-class americans, such as job security, tax rates, wages, and employee benefits.
American dream
The widespread belief that the United States is a land of opportunity and that individual initiative and hard work can bring economic success.
civil court
court in which lawsuits are heard.
Bush Doctrine
A policy adopted by the Bush administration in 2001 that asserts America's right to attack any nation that has weapons of mass destruction that might be used against U.S. interests at home or abroad.
Attentive public
Those citizens who follow public affairs carefully.
Bad tendency test
Interpretation of the First Amendment that would permit legislatures to forbid speech encouraging people to engage in illegal action.
Section 2
(50 cards)
congressional district
The geographically defined group of people on whose behalf a representative acts in the House of Representatives. Reapportioned every 10 years according to new census data. All of equal size.
Conference committee
Committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust differences on a particular bill passed by each in different form.
Closed shop
A company with a labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment.
commander in chief
The president's role as leader of all United States military forces. The is one of the executive powers authorized in the Constitution.
Commercial speech
Advertisements and commercials for products and services; they receive less First Amendment protection, primarily to discourage false and misleading ads.
De jure segregation
Segregation imposed by law.
Decentralists
People who favor state or local action rather than national action.
Constitutional Convention
The convention in Philadelphia, May 25 to September 17, 1787, that debated and agreed upon the Constitution of the United States.
Cloture
A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.
Closed primary
Primary election in which only persons registered in the party holding the primary may vote.
Criminal law
A law that defines crimes against the public order.
Defendant
In a criminal action, the person or party accused of an offense.
Cycle of decreasing influence
The tendency of presidents to lose support over time.
Closed rule
A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.
conservative
A political ideology that tends to favor defense spending and school prayer and to disapporve of social programs, abortion, affirmative action, and a large, active govt. Generally affiliated with the Republican party.
Class action suit
Lawsuit brought by an individual or group of people on behalf of all those similarly situated.
Creative federalism
During the Great Society, the marble cake approach of intergovernmental relations.
Delegate
An official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of legislator.
Dealignment
Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.
Contract clause
Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 10) originally intended to prohibit state governments from modifying contracts made between individuals; for a while interpreted as prohibiting state governments from taking actions that adversely affect property rights; no longer interpreted so broadly and no longer constrains state governments from exercising their police powers.
Cross-cutting cleavages
Divisions within society that cut across demographic categories to produce groups that are more heterogeneous or different.
congressional budget office
Congressional agency of budget experts who assess the feasibility of the president's plan and who help create Congress's version of the federal budget.
civil service system
method of hiring federal employees based on merit rather than on political beliefs or allegiances. replaced the spoils system in the US.
Community policing
Assigning police to neighborhoods where they walk the beat and work with churches and other community groups to reduce crime and improve relations with minorities.
Court of appeals
A court with appellate jurisdiction that hears appeals from the decisions of lower courts.
Cycle of increasing effectiveness
The tendency of presidents to learn more about doing their jobs over time.
Conservatism
A belief that limited government insures order competitive markets and personal opportunity.
Concurring opinion
An opinion that agrees with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling but differs on the reasoning.
Crossover voting
Voting by member of one party for a candidate of another party.
Deficit
The difference between the revenues raised annually from sources of income other than borrowing and the expenditures of government, including paying the interest on past borrowing.
coalition
A combination of groups of people who work together to achieve a political goal.
Commerce clause
The clause in the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.
Concurrent powers
Powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes.
Clear and present danger test
Interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that the government cannot interfere with speech unless the speech presents a clear and present danger that it will lead to evil or illegal acts.
Coattail effect
The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president.
Collective bargaining
Method whereby representatives of the union and employer determine wages, hours, and other conditions of employment through direct negotiation.
civil rights
those protections against discrimination by the govt and individuals. intended to prevent discrimination based on race, religion, gender, ethnicity, physical handicap, or sexual orientation.
Constituents
The residents of a congressional district or state.
Confederation
Constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals.
Competitive federalism
Views the national government, 50 states, and thousands of local governments as competing with each other over ways to put together packages of services and taxes. Applies the analogy of the marketplace: we have some choice about which state and city we want to "use", just as we have choices about what kind of telephone service we use.
civil rights act of 1964
federal law that made segregation illegal in most public places, increased penalties and sentences for those convicted of discrimination in employment, and withheld federal aid from schools that discriminated on the basis of race or gender.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
An agency of Congress that analyzes presidential budget recommendations and estimates the cost of proposed legislation.
Collective action
How groups form and organize to pursue their goals or objectives, including how to get individuals and groups to participate and to cooperate. The term has many applications in the various social sciences such as political science, sociology, and economics.
Cooperative federalism
Stresses federalism as a system of intergovernmental relations in delivering governmental goods and services to the people and calls for cooperation among various levels of government.
De facto segregation
Segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice.
criminal court
Court in which criminal trials are heard
Connecticut Compromise
Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutional Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators.
Crossover sanctions
A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. These sanctions permit the use of federal money in one program to influence state and local policy in another. For example, a 1984 act reduced federal highway aid by up to 15 percent for any state that failed to adopt a minimum drinking age of 21.
Congressional-executive agreement
A formal agreement between a U.S. president and the leaders of other nations that acquires approval by both houses of Congress.
Cross-cutting requirements
A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Federal grants may establish certain conditions that extend to all activities supported by federal funds, regardless of their source. The first and most famous of these is Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which holds that in the use of federal funds, no person may be discriminated against on the basis of race, color, or national origin. More than 60 cross-cutting requirements concern such matters as the environment, historic preservation, contract wage rates, access to government information, the care of experimental animals, and the treatment of human subjects in research projects.
Section 3
(50 cards)
Due process
Established rules and regulations that restrain government officials.
Enumerated powers
The powers expressly given to Congress in the Constitution.
Faction
A term the founders used to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups.
Due process clause
Clause in the Fifth Amendment limiting the power of the national government; similar clause in the Fourteenth Amendment prohibiting state governments from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
Executive Office of the President
The cluster of presidential staff agencies that help the president carry out his responsibilities. Currently the office includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, and several other units.
Establishment clause
Clause in the First Amendment that states that Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion. The Supreme Court has interpreted this to forbid governmental support to any or all religions.
Express powers
Powers the Constitution specifically grants to one of the branches of the national government.
Eminent domain
Power of a government to take private property for public use; the U.S. Constitution gives national and state governments this power and requires them to provide just compensation for property so taken.
Deregulation
A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of economic activity.
Devolution revolution
The effort to slow the growth of the federal government by returning many functions to the states.
federal reserve board
Executive agency that is largely responsible for the formulation and implementation of monetary policy.
Extradition
Legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one states to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.
dual federalism
Form of US federalism during nation's early history. Federal and state governments remain separate and independent (layer cake analogy)
Exclusionary rule
Requirement that evidence unconstitutionally or illegally obtained be excluded from a criminal trial.
equal rights amendment
Failed Constitutional amendment that would have guaranteed equal protection under the law for women.
Direct primary
Election in which voters choose party nominees.
Executive privilege
The power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security.
Excise tax
Consumer tax on a specific kind of merchandise, such as tobacco.
Demographics
The study of the characteristics of populations.
Executive orders
Formal orders issued by the president to direct action by the Federal bureaucracy.
Democratic consensus
Widespread agreement on fundamental principles of democratic governance and the values that undergird them.
Docket
The list of potential cases that reach the Supreme Court.
Federal Election Commission (FEC)
A commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. It consists of six commissioners appointed by president and confirmed by the Senate. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information and public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits.
Economic sanctions
Denial of export, import, or financial relations with the target country in an effort to change that nation's policies.
Executive agreement
A formal agreement between the U.S. president and the leaders of other nations that does not require Senate approval.
Dissenting opinion
An opinion disagreeing with a majority in a Supreme Court ruling.
Environmental impact statement
Statement required by Federal law from all agencies for any project using Federal funds to assess the potential affect of the new construction or development on the environment.
Ethnicity
A social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race.
direct democracy
All enfranchised citizens vote on all matters of government.
Dual federalism (layer cake federalism)
Views the Constitution as giving a limited list of powers—primarily foreign policy and national defense—to the national government, leaving the rest to the sovereign states. Each level of government is dominant within its own sphere. The Supreme Court serves as the umpire between the national government and the states in disputes over which level of government has responsibility for a particular activity.
Equal protection clause
Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that forbids any state to deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. By interpretation, the Fifth Amendment imposes the same limitation on the national government. This clause is the major constitutional restraint on the power of governments to discriminate against persons because of race, national origin, or sex.
Federal mandate
A requirement the federal government imposes as a condition for receiving federal funds.
ex post facto laws
If allowed, these laws would punish people for actions that occurred before such actions were made criminal.
Electoral college
Electoral system used in electing the president and vice president, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for particular party's candidates.
Department
Usually the largest organization in government with the largest mission; also the highest rank in Federal hierarchy.
Discharge petition
Petition that, if signed by majority of the House of Representatives' members, will pry a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration.
delegated powers
Constitutional powers granted solely to the federal government.
Direct orders
A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Direct orders must be complied with under threat of criminal or civil sanction. An example is the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, barring job discrimination by state and local governments on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin.
Ethnocentrism
Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.
Double jeopardy
Trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government; forbidden by the Constitution.
Dual citizenship
Citizenship in more than one nation.
Entitlements
Programs such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability payments that provide benefits to all eligible citizens.
Executive order
Directive issued by a president or governor that has the force of law.
elastic clause
The section of the Constitution that allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" to the performance of its duties. Allows Congress to stretch its pwers beyond those that are specifically granted to it.
Earmarks
Special spending projects that are set aside on behalf of individual members of Congress for their constituents.
Entitlement programs
Programs such as unemployment insurance, disability relief, or disability payments that provide benefits to all eligible citizens.
Distributive policy
A type of policy that provides benefits to all Americans.
Federal Register
An official document, published every weekday, which lists the new and proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies.
Ex post facto law
Retroactive criminal law that works to the disadvantage of a person.
Divided government
Governance divided between the parties, especially when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.
Section 4
(50 cards)
Federalism
Constitutional arrangement in which power is distributed between a central government and subdivisional governments, called states in the United States. The national and the subdivisional governments both exercise direct authority over individuals.
Implementation
The process of putting a law into practice through bureaucratic rules or spending.
Gender gap
The difference between the political opinions or political behavior of men and of women.
freedom of information act
Act which declassified government documents for public use.
Free rider
An individual who does not to join a group representing his or her interests yet receives the benefit of the group's influence.
Incumbent
The current holder of the elected office.
Health maintenance organization (HMO)
Alternative means of health care in which people or their employers are charged a set amount and the HMO provides health care and covers hospital costs.
Full faith and credit clause
Clause in the Constitution (Article 4, Section 1) requiring each state to recognize the civil judgments rendered by the courts of the other states and to accept their public records and acts as valid.
Implied powers
Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.
Fighting words
Words that by their very nature inflict injury on those to whom they are addressed or incite them to acts of violence.
griswold v. connecticut
Supreme Court decision in which the Court ruled that the Constitution implicitly guarantees citizens' rights to privacy.
Free exercise clause
Clause in the First Amendment that states that Congress shall make no law prohibiting the free exercise of religion.
Filibuster
A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.
Independent expenditure
The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure.
Gerrymandering
The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent.
Impoundment - A decision by the president not to spend money appropriated by Congress, now prohibited under Federal law.
Horse race
A close contest; by extension, any contest in which the focus is on who is ahead and by how much rather than on substantive differences between the candidates.
front loading
Because early primaries have grown increasingly important in recent years, many states have pushed forward the date of their primary elections.
Hold
A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of the bill or nomination.
Gross domestic product (GDP)
The total output of all economic activity in the nation, including goods and services.
federalist papers
A series of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay to defend the constitution and persuade Americans that it should be ratified.
gramm-rudman-holdings bill
Set budget reduction targets to balance budget but failed to eliminate loopholes.
Federal Reserve System
The system created by Congress in 1913 to establish banking practices and regulate currency in circulation and the amount of credit available. It consists of 12 regional banks supervised by the Board of Governors. Often called simply the Fed.
Impoundment
Presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and appropriated.
Hard power
The reliance on economic and military strength to solve international problems.
Immunity
Exemption from prosecution for a particular crime in return for testimony pertaining to the case.
first amendment
Protects the rights of individuals against the government by guaranteeing the freedom of speech, the press, religion, and assembly.
house rules committee
Determines the rules for debate of each bill, including whether the bill may be amended. This is the most powerful committee in the House.
great society
President Lyndon B Johnson's social/economic program aimed at raising the standard of living for America's poorest residents.
Impeachment
Formal accusation by the lower house of legislature against a public official, the first step in removal from office.
great compromise
Settlement reached at the Constitutional convention between large states and small states. Called for two legislative houses.
Fundamentalists
Conservative Christians who (as a group) have become more active in politics in the last two decades and were especially influential in the 2000 presidential election.
gideon v. wainwright
Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a defendant in a felony trial must be provided a lawyer free of charge if the defendant cannot afford one.
Government corporation
A government agency that operates like a business corporation, created to secure greater freedom of action and flexibility for a particular program.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
An international trade organization with more than 130 members, including the United States and the People's Republic of China, that seeks to encourage free trade by lowering tariffs and other trade restrictions.
Hard money
Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amounts and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term "hard money."
Fiscal federalism
Through different grant programs, slices up the marble cake into many different pieces, making it even more difficult to differentiate the functions of the levels of government.
Idealism
A theory of international relations that focuses on the hope the nations will act together to solve international problems and promote peace.
Federalists
Supporters of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government.
fifteenth amendment
Prohibited states from denying voting rights to African Americans.
Grand jury
A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.
Independent agency
A government entity that is independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Hatch Act
Federal statute barring Federal employees from active participation in certain kinds of politics and protecting them from being fired on partisan grounds.
Green party
A minor party dedicated to the environment, social justice, nonviolence, and the foreign policy of nonintervention. Ralph Nader ran as the Green party's nominee in 2000.
General election
Elections in which voters elect officeholders.
Honeymoon
Period at the beginning of the new president's term during which the president enjoys generally positive relations with the press and Congress, usually lasting about six months.
fiscal year
Twelve-month period starting on Oct. 1 when government budgets go into effect.
fourteenth amendment
Prevented the states from denying "due process of law" and "equal protection under the law" to citizens. Specifically aimed at protecting the rights of newly freed slaves.
Fiscal policy
Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling taxing and spending.
house of representatives
Lower house of US Congress, in which representation is allocated to states in direct proportion to their population. Has sole power to initiate appropriations legislation.
Section 5
(50 cards)
Line item veto
Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a spending bill without vetoing the entire package; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Independent expenditures
The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an independent expenditure.
Inherent powers
The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.
Majority
The candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election.
Logrolling
Mutual aid and vote trading among legislators.
Interested money
Financial contributions by individuals or groups in the hope of influencing the outcome of the election and subsequently influencing policy.
Libel
Written defamation of another person. For public officials and public figures, the constitutional tests designed to restrict libel actions are especially rigid.
Jim Crow laws
State laws formerly pervasive throughout the South requiring public facilities and accommodations to be segregated by race; ruled unconstitutional.
Mandate
A president's claim of broad public support.
ku klux klan
nativist hate group that preaches hatred of African Americans, Catholics, and Jews.
Indexing
Providing automatic increases to compensate for inflation.
Issue advocacy
Unlimited and undisclosed spending by an individual or group on communications that do not use words like "vote for" or "vote against," although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates.
Judicial activism
Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect current conditions and values.
Independent regulatory commission
A government agency or commission with regulatory power whose independence is protected by Congress.
Liberalism
A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity.
Keynesian economics
Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and the curve during booms.
Manifest opinion
A widely shared and consciously held view, like support for homeland security.
Interest group
A collection of people who share a common interest or attitude and seek to influence government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and try to achieve their goals through tactics such as lobbying.
legislative oversight
One of Congress's most important tasks... In order to check the power of the executive branch, congressional committees investigate and evaluate the performance of corresponding executive agencies and departments.
inevitable discovery
Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that the evidence would eventually have been found by legal means
Linkage institutions
The means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.
Libertarianism
An ideology that cherishes individual liberty and insists on minimal government a noninterventionist foreign policy, and an absence of regulation in moral, economic, and social life.
Libertarian party
A minor party that believes in extremely limited government. Libertarians call for a free market system, expanded individual liberties such as drug legalization, and a foreign policy of nonintervention, free trade, and open immigration.
Judicial restraint
Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect what the framers intended and what its words literally say.
Majority-minority district
A congressional district created to include a majority of minority voters; ruled constitutional so long as race is not the main factor in redistricting.
Inflation
A rise in the general price level (and decrease in dollar value) owing to an increase in the volume of money and credit in relation to available goods.
Interstate compact
An agreement among two or more states. Congress must approve most such agreements.
Literacy test
Literacy requirements some states imposed as a condition of voting, generally used to disqualify black voters in the South; now illegal.
Leadership PAC
A PAC formed by an officeholder that collects contributions from individuals and other PACs and then makes contributions to other candidates and political parties.
Isolationism
The desire to avoid international entanglement altogether.
Justiciable dispute
A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of settlement by legal methods.
Lobbying
Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislators, and the policies they enact.
Indictment
A formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense; also called a true bill.
Iron triangle
A policy-making alliance that involves a very strong ties among a congressional committee, an interest group, and a Federal Department or agency.
Manifest destiny
A notion held by a nineteenth-century Americans that the United States was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic the Pacific.
Judicial review
The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or a government regulation that in the opinion of the judges conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.
Laissez-faire economics
Theory that opposes governmental interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.
Lobbyist
A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
Majority leader
The legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy, confers with other party leaders, and tries to keep members of the party in line.
liberal
Ideaology that tends to favor govt spending on social programs, affirmative action, rights to abortions, and an active Govt. Usually affiliated with Democratic Party.
Issue network
Relationships among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and the government agencies that share a common policy concern.
Majority rule
Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.
Marble cake federalism
Conceives of federalism as a marble cake in which all levels of government are involved in a variety of issues and programs, rather than a layer cake, or dual federalism, with fixed divisions between layers or levels of government.
Internationalism
The belief that nations must engage in international problem solving.
limited government
principle of govt that states that govt powers must be confined to those allowed it by the nations Constitution.
Joint committee
A committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate; such committees oversee the Library of Congress and conduct investigations.
killer amendment
Amendment to a bill proposed by its opponents for the specific purpose of decreasing the bill's chance of passing.
Labor injunction
A court order forbidding specific individuals or groups from performing certain acts (such as striking) that the court considers harmful to the rights and property of an employer or community.
Initiative
Procedure whereby a certain number of voters may, by petition, propose a law or constitutional amendment and have it submitted to the voters.
john marshall
Third Chief Justice (early 1800s). Federalist who worked to increase the powers of the federal govt over the states. Established the principle of judicial review.
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Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
Agency that administers civil service laws, rules, and regulations.
miranda v. arizona
Supreme Court case in which the court ruled that, upon arrest, a suspect must be advised of the right to remain silent and consult with a lawyer.
News media
Media that emphasize the news.
Open rule
A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that permits floor amendments within the overall time allocated to the bill.
Name recognition
Incumbents have an advantage over challengers in election campaigns because voters are more familiar with them, and incumbents are more recognizable.
Nonprotected speech
Libel, obscenity, fighting words, and commercial speech, which are not entitled to constitutional protection in all circumstances.
Medicaid
Federal program that provides medical benefits for low-income persons.
Medicare
National Health Insurance program for the elderly and disabled.
national convention
Occasion at which a political party officially announces its presidential nominee and reveals its party platform for the next four years.
office of budget and management
Executive branch office responsible for drawing up the president's proposals for the federal budget.
Nongovernmental organization (NGO)
A nonprofit association or group operating outside of government that advocates and pursues policy objectives.
Movement
A large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action. Movements seek to change attitudes or institutions, not just policies.
national organization of women
Feminist political group formed in 1967 to promote legislative change. Lobbied fro the Equal Right Amendment (and failed).
National tide
The inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election campaign. The impact of the national tide can be reduced by the nature of the candidates on the ballot who might have differentiated themselves from their party or its leader if the tide is negative, as well as competition in the election.
Open shop
A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment.
Multilateralism
A philosophy that encourages individual nations tacked together to solve international problems.
Monetarism
A theory that government should control the money supply to encourage economic growth and restrain inflation.
Nonpartisan election
A local or judicial election in which candidates are not selected or endorsed by political parties and party affiliation is not listed on ballots.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Presidential staff the agency that serves as a clearinghouse for budgetary requests and management improvements for government agencies.
Medical savings account
Alternative means of health care in which individuals make tax-deductible contributions to a special account that can be used to pay medical expenses.
ninteenth amendment
Voting rights to women
National supremacy
Constitutional doctrine that whenever conflict occurs between the constitutionally authorized actions of the national government and those of a state or local government, the actions of the federal government will prevail.
Merit system
A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend on demonstrated performance rather than political patronage.
New Jersey Plan
Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single
national security council
Presidential advisory board established in 1947 to consult with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.
Minority leader
the legislative leader selected by the minority party as spokesperson for the opposition.
Natural law
God's or nature's law that defines right from wrong and is higher than human law.
Necessary and proper clause
Clause of the Constitution (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers has the right to make all laws necessary and proper to carry out all powers the Constitution vests in the national government.
Marbury v. Madison
A landmark case in United States law and the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States, under Article Three of the United States Constitution. The case resulted from a petition to the Supreme Court
National debt
The total amount of money the Federal government has borrowed to finance deficit spending over the years.
Opinion of the Court
An explanation of the decision of the Supreme Court or any other appellate court.
Means-tested entitlements
Programs such as Medicaid and welfare under which applicants must meet eligibility requirements based on need.
National Intelligence Director
The Federal government's primary intelligence officer, responsible for overseeing all national intelligence agencies and providing advice to the President on terrorist threats.
Minor party
A small political party that rises and falls with a charismatic candidate or, if composed of ideologies on the right or left, usually persists over time; also called a third party.
Monetary policy
Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the money supply and thus interest rates.
Natural rights - The rights of all people to dignity and worth; also called human rights.
National party convention
A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.
Monopoly
Domination of an industry by a single company that fixes prices and discourages competition; also
Mass media
Means of communication that are reaching the public, including newspapers and magazines, radio, television (broadcast, cable, and satellite), films, recordings, books, and electronic communication.
Open primary
Primary election in which any voter, regardless of party, may vote.
Normal trade relations
Trade status granted as part of an international trade policy that gives a nation the same favorable trade concessions and tariffs that the best trading partners receive.
Natural rights
The rights of all people to dignity and worth; also called human rights.
objective good faith
Exception to the exclusionary rule that allows the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial if the court determines that police believed they were acting within the limits of their search warrant.
Offshoring
The practice of exporting U.S. jobs to lower paid employees in other nations.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Agreement signed by the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 1992 to form the largest free trade zone in the world.
Obscenity
Quality or state of a work that taken as a whole appeals to a prurient interest in sex by depicting sexual conduct in a patently offensive way and that lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.
Midterm election
Elections held midway between presidential elections.
Original jurisdiction
The authority of a court to hear a case "in the first instance."
Naturalization
A legal action conferring citizenship on an alien.
nomination
Endorsement to run for office by a political party.
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Party registration
The act of declaring party affiliation; required by some states when one registers to vote.
Photo ops
Photo opportunities set up by the candidates. The media have been accused of simplifying complicated political issues by relying on photo ops to explain them to the public.
priviledges and immunities clause
Section of the Constitution stating that a state may not refuse police protection or access to its courts to US citizens because they live in a different state.
Project grants
Congress appropriates a certain sum, which is allocated to state and local units and sometimes to nongovernmental agencies, based on applications from those who wish to participate. Examples are grants by the National Science Foundation to universities and research institutes to support the work of scientists or grants to states and localities to support training and employment programs.
Preferred position doctrine
Interpretation of the First Amendment that holds that freedom of expression is so essential to democracy that governments should not punish persons for what they say, only for what they do.
Pluralism
A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.
Political ideology
A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.
Plea bargain
Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.
pork barrel
Budget items proposed by legislators to benefit constituents in their home state or district. Sometimes unnecessary but are passed because they are politically beneficial.
Procedural due process
Constitutional requirement that governments proceed by proper methods; limits how government may exercise power.
Political socialization
The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
populists
Political party of the late 1800s. Represented farmers and working-class Americans, sought inflationary economic policies to increase farm income.
Presidential election
Elections held in years when the president is on the ballot.
Petit jury
A jury of 6 to 12 persons that determines guilt or innocence in a civil or criminal action.
Patronage
The dispensing of government jobs to persons who belong to the winning political party.
Plurality
Candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.
Permissive federalism
Implies that although federalism provides "a sharing of power and authority between the national and state governments, the state's share rests upon the permission and permissiveness of the national government."
Primary election
Elections in which voters determine party nominees.
progressive income tax
Increases tax rates for people with higher incomes
Prior restraint
Censorship imposed before a speech is made or a newspaper is published; usually presumed to be unconstitutional.
Parliamentary system
A system of government in which the legislature selects the prime minister or president.
Political culture
The widely shared beliefs and norms about how citizens relate to governments and to one another.
Party convention
A meeting of party delegates to vote on matters of policy and in some cases to select party candidates for public office.
Political party
An organization that seeks political power by electing people to office so that its positions and philosophy become public policy.
Popular consent
The idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs.
Proportional representation
An election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote.
Party caucus
A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy. Called a conference by the Republicans.
Override
An action taken by Congress to reverse the presidential veto, requiring a two-thirds majority in each chamber.
Property rights
The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.
Poll tax
Tax required to vote; prohibited for national elections by the Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964) and ruled unconstitutional for all elections in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966).
Oversight
Legislative or executive review of a particular government program or organization. Can be in response to a crisis of some kind or part of routine review.
President pro tempore
Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the vice president.
Political predisposition
A characteristic of individuals that is predictive of political behavior.
Progressive tax
A tax graduated so that people with higher incomes pay larger fraction of their income than people with lower incomes.
Preemption
The right of a federal law or a regulation to preclude enforcement of a state or local law or regulation.
Party identification
An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in childhood.
Presidential ticket
The joint listing of the presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot as required by the Twelfth Amendment.
Popular sovereignty
A belief that ultimate power resides in the people.
plessy v. ferguson
Supreme Court ruling that "seperate but equal" facilities for different races are not unconstitutional.
Pocket veto
A veto exercised by the president after Congress has adjourned; if the president takes no action for 10 days, the bill does not become law and does not return to Congress for possible override.
pardon
Cancellation of criminal punishment, granted by presidents and governors.
primary elections
Form of election held by the majority of states, during which voters select the nominees for political parties.
Precedent
A decision made by a higher court such as a circuit court of appeals or the Supreme Court that is binding on all other federal courts.
Policy agenda
The informal list of issues that Congress and the president consider most important for action.
Political socialization - The process
most notably in families and schools
political action committee
(PAC) Fundraising apparatus of interest groups; donations are regulated by federal law; contribute heavily to the reelection campaigns of representatives and senators sympathetic to the PAC's political agenda.
Police powers
Inherent powers of state governments to pass laws to protect the public health, safety, and welfare; the national government has no directly granted police powers but accomplishes the same goals through other delegated powers.
platform
Statement of purpose and policy objectives drafted and approved by political parties at their national conventions.
policy implementation
The process by which executive departments and agencies put legislations into practice.
Political action committee (PAC)
The political arm of an interest group that is legally entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees to contribute funds to candidates or political parties.
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Random sample
In this type of sample, every individual has unknown and random chance of being selected.
Safe seat
Elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of the party's candidate is almost taken for granted.
Protectionism
Policy of erecting trade barriers to protect domestic industry.
Retrospective issue of voting
Holding incumbents, usually the president's party, responsible for their records on issues, such as the economy or foreign policy.
Referendum
Procedure for submitting to popular vote measures passed by the legislature or proposed amendments to a state constitution.
Search warrant
A writ issued by a magistrate that authorizes the police to search a particular place or person, specifying the place to be searched and the objects to be seized.
Reform party
A minor party founded by Ross Perot in 1995. It focuses on national government reform, fiscal responsibility, and political accountability. It has recently struggled with internal strife and criticism that it lacks an identity.
Public policy
A specific course of action taken by government to achieve a public goal.
regulatory agency
Executive agency responsible for enforcing laws pertaining to a certain industry.
Realigning election
An election during periods of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within parties.
Rule
The precise legal definition of how government will implement a policy.
Rally point
A rising public approval of the president that follows a crisis as Americans "rally 'round the flag" and the chief executive.
Rule-making process
The formal process for making regulations.
Racial profiling
Police targeting of racial minorities as potential suspects of criminal activities.
Right of expatriation
The right to renounce one's citizenship.
roe v. wade
supreme court case that decriminalized abortion.
Regressive tax
A tax whereby people with lower incomes pay a higher fraction of their income than people with higher incomes.
Quid pro quo
Something given with the expectation of receiving something in return.
Public defender system
Arrangement whereby public officials are hired to provide legal assistance to people accused of crimes who are unable to hire their own attorneys.
Regulations
The formal instructions that government issues for implementing laws.
Selected perception
The process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages.
Reapportionment
The assigning by Congress of congressional seats after each census. State legislatures reapportion state legislative districts.
schenck v. United states
Supreme Court case involving limits of free speech. Established "clear and present danger" principle.
quorum
The minimum number of people required for the legislature to act
runoff primary
Election held between top two vote-getters in a primary election, which neither recieved a legally required minimum percentage of the vote.
representative democracy
Form of govt under which citizens vote for delegates who in turn represent citizens' interests within the govt.
recall election
Process through which voters can shorten an office holder's term.
Prospective issue voting
Voting based on what a candidate pledges to do in the future about an issue if elected.
Sales tax
General tax on sales transactions, sometimes exempting food and drugs.
Redistricting
The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.
reserved powers
Constitutional powers that belong solely to the states.
Revolving door
Employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies that regulate interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.
Public choice
Synonymous with "collective action," it specifically studies how government officials, politicians, and voters respond to positive and negative incentives.
Public assistance
Aid to the poor; "welfare."
saving amendment
Amendment to a bill proposed in hopes of softening opposition by weakening objectionable elements of the bill.
Reinforcing cleavages
Divisions within society that reinforce one another, making groups more homogenous or similar.
Racial gerrymandering
The drawing of election districts so as to ensure that members of a certain race are a minority in the district; ruled unconstitutional in Gomillion v. Lightfoot (1960).
Public opinion
The distribution of individual preferences or evaluations of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a specific population.
Rider
A provision attached to a bill
Race
A grouping of human beings with distinctive characteristics determined by genetic inheritance.
Regulatory taking
Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.
Realism
A theory of international relations that focuses on the tendency of nations to operate from self-interest.
sampling error
Margin of error in public opinion poll.
Regulation
Efforts by government to alter the free operation of the market to achieve social goals such as protecting workers and the environment.
realignment
Occurs when a party undergoes a major shift in its electoral base and political agenda.
Restrictive covenant
A provision in a deed to real property prohibiting its sale to a person of a particular race or religion. Judicial enforcement of such deeds is unconstitutional.
Sedition
Attempting to overthrow the government by force or use violence to interrupt its activities.
Recall
Procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term.
Redistributive policy
A type of policy that takes benefits (usually through taxes) from one group of Americans and gives them to another (usually through spending).
select committee
Temporary committee of Congress, usually created to investigate specific issues.
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State's rights
Powers expressly or implicitly reserved to the states.
The Federalist
Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788.
Social insurance
Programs in which eligibility is based on prior contributions to government, usually in the form of payroll taxes.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
A division of population based on occupation, income, and education.
Sound bites
30-second statements on the evening news shows. The media have been accused of simplifying complicated political issues by relying on sound bites to explain them to the public.
Separation of powers
Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law.
Social Security
A combination of entitlement programs, paid for by employer and employee taxes, that includes retirement benefits, health insurance, and support for disabled workers and the children of deceased or disabled workers.
State of the Union Address
The president's annual statement to Congress and the nation.
Spoils system
A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.
Single-member district
An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.
split ticket voting
Choosing candidates from different parties for offices listed on the same ballot.
Tariff
Tax levied on imports to help protect the nation's industries, labor, or farmers from foreign competition. It can also be used to raise additional revenue.
Socialism
An economic and governmental system based on public ownership of the means of production and exchange.
Social capital
Democratic and civic habits of discussion and respect for differences which grow out of participation in voluntary organizations.
Unitary system
Constitutional arrangement that concentrates power in a central government.
Seniority rule
A legislative practice that assigns the chair of the committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.
Tax expenditure
Loss of tax revenue due to Federal laws that provide special tax incentives or benefits to individuals or businesses.
strict constructionism
Belief that Constitution should be read in a way that limits powers of the federal govt as much as possible.
Trade deficit
An imbalance in international trade in which the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.
senate
Upper house of Congress, in which each state has two representatives. Has power to approve cabinet, ambassadors, and judges, and treaties.
Soft money
Unlimited amounts of money that political parties previously could raise for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state and local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.
Selective exposure
The process by which individuals screen out messages that do not conform to their own biases.
Stare decisis
The rule of precedent, whereby a rule or law contained in a judicial decision is commonly viewed as binding on judges whenever the same question is presented.
Treaty
A formal, public agreement between the United States and one or more nations that must be approved by two thirds of the Senate.
Unemployment
The number of Americans who are out of work but actively looking for a job. The number does not usually include those who are not looking.
Union shop
A company in which new employees must join a union within a stated time period.
sixteenth amendment
Authorized congress to impose and collect federal income taxes.
Three Fifths Compromise
Three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives.
Special or select committee
A congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation.
Take care clause
The constitutional requirement (in Article II, Section 3) that presidents take care that the laws are faithfully executed, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws.
Senior Executive Service
Established by Congress in 1978 as a flexible, mobile corps of senior career executives who worked closely with presidential appointees to manage government.
Standing committee
A permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy area.
Speaker of the House
Individual chosen by members of the House of Representatives to preside over its sessions.
Senatorial courtesy
Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.
Selective incorporation
The process by which provisions of the bill of rights are brought within the scope of the Fourteenth Amendment and so applied to state and local governments.
Unilateralism
A philosophy that encourages individual nations to act on their own when facing threats from other nations.
Soft power
The reliance on diplomacy and negotiation to solve international problems.
Speaker
The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the House but actually selected by the majority party.
Suffrage
The right to vote.
Trust
A monopoly that controls goods and services, often in combinations that reduce competition.
Turnout
The proportion of the voting age public that votes, sometimes defined as the number of registered voters that vote.
Shays's Rebellion
Rebellion led by Daniel Shays of farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786
Uncontrollable spending
The portion of the Federal budget that is spent on programs, such as Social Security, that the president and Congress are unwilling to cut.
Trustee
An official who is expected to vote independently based on his or her judgment of the circumstances; one interpretation of the role of the legislator.
Theory of deterrence
A theory that is based on creating enough military strength to convince other nations not to attack first.
Unfunded mandates
Programs that the Federal government requires States to implement without Federal funding.
Substantive due process
Constitutional requirement that governments act reasonably and that the substance of the laws themselves be fair and reasonable; limits what the government may do.
Theocracy
Government by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance.
Total and Partial Preemption
A technique of Congress to establish federal regulations. Total preemption rests on the national governments power under the supremacy and commerce clauses to preempt conflicting state and local activity. Building on this constitutional authority, federal law in certain areas entirely preempts state and local governments from the field. Sometimes federal law provides for partial preemption in establishing basic policies but requires states to administer them. Some programs give states an option not to participate, but if a state chooses not to do so, the national government steps in and runs the program. Even worse from the state's point of view is mandatory partial preemption, in which the national government requires states to act on peril of losing other funds but provides no funds to support state action.
shield law
law guaranteeing news reporters the right to protect the anonymity of their sources.
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