Section 1
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4 states that will use apoptosis
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Date created
Mar 1, 2020
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Section 1
(50 cards)
4 states that will use apoptosis
1. severe cell injury 2. Accumulation of misfolded proteins 3. Infections (especially viral) Cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis 4. Obstruction in tissue ducts In pancreas, kidney, parotid apoptosis, causes atrophy
EKG hypokalemia
slightly peaked P wave Slightly prolonged PR interval ST depression Shallow T wave Prominent U wave
Atrophy
Cell shape stays the same, decrease in size Physiologic- thymus gland as we develop shrinks Pathologic- Skeletal muscles from disuse, Aging causes brain cells and gonads to shrink
CELL INJURY MECHANISM Result of Active cell injury
immediate response of the entire cell
Hyperkalemia EKG
Peaked T wave wide flat P wave prolonged PR interval Decreased R amplitude widened QRS depressed ST segment
Where does ROS occur
Mitochondria most mitochondria lack catalase which makes the antioxidants inefficient
CELL INJURY MECHANISM Result of Reversible injury
Loss of ATP, cellular swelling, detachment of ribosomes, autophagy of lysosomes
4 Mechanisms of Edema
1. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure 2. Decreased plasma oncotic pressure 3. Increased capillary membrane permeability 4. Lymphatic obstruction
Hyperkalemia clinical manifestations
Muscle weakness, atonality, paralysis, restlesness, cramps, diarrhea, low cardiac conductivity
Cellular Adaption
Cells adapt to protect themselves, at this point they are neither injured nor normal. somewhere in between
Net filtration
forces favoring filtration minus forces opposing filtration
methods of Potassium intake and output Renal Regulation of potassium
Intake- diet, meds or IV 50-100 mEq/day Output- urine and sweat Renal Regulation by: Aldosterone-secreted in renal tubular filtrate Potassium-hydrogen exchange
Body is ___% fluid ____% intracellular ____% extracellular (can be measured)
60% 2/3 intracellular 1/3 extracellular
Coagulative Necrosis
Occurs in heart, kidney, adrenal glands result of hypoxia protein denaturation occurrs; causes albumin to change to gelatinous state
_________ accounts for 70% of capillary oncotic pressure
Albumin
Hypokalmeia
Potassium Level less than 3.5 -Reduced potassium intake -Increased potassium into cells -alkalosis (K+ into cell) - insulin administration -GI vomit or diarrhea -kidneys secrete K+ to regulate Na+ (dehydration) Causes_____: Membrane hyperpolarization Neuromuscualr excitability decreases skeletal muscle weakness smooth muscle atony cardiac dysrhythmias flat T wave, low ST divot
Greater of less for Arterial & Venous Net hydrostatic Net oncotic Net filtration
Hydrostatic greater in arterial oncotic greater in venous Net positive in arterial, negative in venous
ROS injury Alterations of proteins
Causes fragmentation in polypeptide chains this causes pumps to fail, signaling to fail, and all cell processes to fail
Results of Chronic cell injury
Persistant stimuli response may involve only specific organelles or cytoskeleton phagocytosis of bac
Hypokalemia Treatment
Diet oral K+ 40-80 mEq/day IV No more than 20 mEq/ hour!
Result of Autophagy cellular inury
cell eats self
Result of Accumulation/ Infiltration injury
water, pigments, lipids, glycogen, proteins
Hyperplasia
Change in the number of cells, can be normal or abnormally shaped - compensatory hyperplasia: liver regrowth, callus formation -Hormonal Hyperplasia: ovulation w/ pregnancy leads to uterine hyperplasia & breast tissue enlargment -Pathologic hyperplasia: endometrial; imbalance of estrogen
Gangrenous Necrosis
Dry gangrene- from coagulative necrosis (hypoxia) Wet gangrene - develops as neutrophils invade the site and liquefy tissues
What fluid compartments consist of intracellular fluid
cells tissues
Necrosis
Cellular dissolution, rapid loss of plasma membrane organelle swelling, mitochondrial dysfunction -sum of cellular changes after cell death -5 types: fat, liquifactive, coagulative, caseous, gangrenous
Mild hyperkalemia S&S
Hyperpolarized membrane: causing neuromuscular irritability Tingling of lips and fingers restlessness intestinal cramping and diarrhea
Metaplasia
reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type - bronchial lining in response to smoking, newly formed cells do not secrete mucous or have cilia leading to a loss of viral protection
2 types of chemical energy
-Direct toxicity by combining w/ molecular component of cell membrane or organelles ex. cyanide inhibits mitochondria cytochrome oxidase and blocks electron transport -Indirect: most chemicals (drugs) not biologically active in parent form must be converted to reactive metabolite ex. Tylenol becomes a toxic metabolite in the liver
2 defenses for chemical injury
detoxification enzymes antioxidant system
Chemical Injury
-Electrophiles (electron lovers) are an atom or molecule that are attracted to electrons. They create a covalent bond which creates a fully charged center in molecules -Nucleophiles are atoms that donate an electron pair, are attracted to positive regions -The majority of chemical energies are electrophilic. The intermediates can interact w/ cellular macromolecules and can cause cell damage
4 common themes in cellular injury
1.ATP depletion 2. O2 and free radicals 3.Cellular self destruction 4. Defects in membrane permeability
liquefactive necrosis
Ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells generally in brain little connected tissue in brain digested leaving cysts
Major intracellular cation and it's fucntion
Potassium Neuromuscular excitability Acid/base balance
Filtration forces
capillary hydrostatic pressure and interstitial oncotic pressure
Result of Necrosis cellular injury
Severe cell swelling and break down of organelles
Intracellular and Extracellular potassium limits
Intracellular K+= 140-150 mEq/L Extracellular K+= 3.5-5 mEq/L
Hypertrophy
Cells get greater in size but keep their shape -heart stress will increase the size of the heart -muscle tension and stressing will cause growth of cardiac muscle
Fat necrosis
Lipases break down triglycerides, releasing fatty acids wich combine with calcium creating soaps breast tissue, and pancreas
Hyperkalemia
very rate Potassium level: greater than 5.5 (5 really but 5.5 is where a real concern happens) Pathophysiology: Hypopolarization=excitability Alters neuromuscular excitability people w/ renal disease can be hyperkalemic Causes of hyperkalemia: Increase intake penicillin, whole blood, K+ therapy, shifts of potassium from ICF, acidosis, Burns, crushing injury, sparing diuretics, low renal secretions, insulin defficiency
How does K+ shift in and out of a cell
Hydrogen-Potassium shifting In with insulin and beta antagonists out by hyperosmolarity, excersie, and cell lysis
Result of cellular apoptosis injury
Programmed cell death
ROS from Reprofusion injury
OH, O2-, H2O2 free radicals released causes further membrane damage and mitochondrial calcium overload can be reversed by antioxidant treatment (like vitamin C)
ROS cell injury Lipid peroxidation
destruction of unsaturated fatty acids, the double bonds are vulnerable to OH attacks Causes holes in cell walls, contents leak, cells pop
Irreversible cellular injury results in
"point of no return" Vacuolization of mitochondria influx of Ca++
Filtration
movement of fluid out of capillaries into interstitial space
Reabsorption
Movement of fluid into capillary space from interstitial space
Necrosis vs. Apoptosis
Apoptosis is programmed and can save some organelles to be used in other areas, where Necrosis saves nothing
Reprofusion injury
When cell's mitochondria try to resume ATP production after injury such as thrombosis. If you resupply O2, it can causes more damage. -broken mitochondria produces ROS when provided with O2 -ROS (or free radicals) are hazardous to the body - Complication of tissue transplant, myocardial infarction, stroke, renal hepatic cells
Dysplasia
abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues, or organs. Deranged cell growth (Atypical hyperplasia) - changes in cervical lining cells may lead to cancer -Strong indicator of breast cancer -If stimulus (like smoking) is removed, dysplasia is often reversed
Section 2
(19 cards)