Section 1
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Section 1
(50 cards)
starch
Storage polysaccharide of plants.
peptide bond
Bonds that connect amino acids.
electronegativity
Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.
mutation
Changes in the nucleotide sequence in DNA.
decent with modification
Darwin's way of referring to evolution.
homologous structures
Same structure, different function. Comes from common ancestor.
biogeography
Geographic distribution of species.
pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure.
macroevolution
Evolutionary change above the species level.
catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
homology
Similarity resulting from common ancestry.
chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
comparative embryology
Embryos of vertebrates share many anatomical homologies.
dehydration synthesis
Condensation reaction where molecules are connected by loss of a water molecule.
-ose
Suffix of a sugar.
fitness
Individuals whose inherited traits confer an advantage have a better chance of surviving in a given environment and will leave more offspring.
quaternary structure
Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.
polar
Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.
glycogen
Extremely branched polymer of glucose.
-in
Suffix of a protein.
artificial selection
Humans modifying species for desired traits through selective breeding.
tryiacylglycerol
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
microevolution
Change in genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation.
allele frequency
Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.
phosphodiester bonds
Bonds between phosphate group and pentose sugar in nucleic acids.
primary structure
Chain of amino acids.
synthesis
To put together.
tertiary structure
Results from interactions between side chains.
cellulose
Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.
solute
Something dissolved in a solution.
cohesion
Water molecules sticking to each other.
population genetics
Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.
hydrolysis
Reaction where water split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.
disulphide bridges
Reinforce tertiary structure.
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Helps measure changes in allele frequencies over time . Provides an "ideal" population to use as a basis of comparison.
nonpolar
No partial charges. Do not mix with water.
purines
Bases with a double-ring structure.
secondary structure
Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
vestigial structures
Are little or no importance to organism, but remain from an ancestor.
evolutionary adaptation
An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.
solvent
Dissolving agent of a solution.
population
Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
natural selection
A population can change over time if individuals with more fit traits leave more offspring than less fit individuals.
cholesterol
Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.
isomers
Same atoms but different arrangement.
adhesion
Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.
steroids
Made of four rings of carbon.
digestion
To break apart.
gene pool
All the genes in a given population at a given time.
Section 2
(50 cards)
phylogenetic trees
Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships.
mechanical isolation
Morphological differences prevent fertilization.
genetic variation
Heritable variations in a population.
reproductive isolation
Barriers that impede members of two different species fro producing fertile offspring.
directional selection
Shift toward a favorable variation.
systematics
Analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of present and past organisms.
reduced hybrid fertility
Sterile hybrids due to uneven chromosome number.
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
sympatric speciation
Speciation without a divided population.
shared primitive character
Trait shared beyond the taxon.
genus
First part of scientific name.
sexual dimorphism
Differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.
polyphyletic group
A taxonomic grouping consisting of several species that lack a common ancestor (more work is needed to uncover species that tie them together into a monophyletic clade).
gene flow
When a population gains or loses alleles., movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population.
reduced hybrid viability
When the genes of different species interact and impair hybrid development.
disruptive selection
Shift toward the extremes.
heterozygous advantage
Maintains recessive alleles in a population,
polyploidy
In plants, the result of an extra set of chromosomes during cell division.
cladistics
A phylogenetic classification system that uses shared derived characters and ancestry as the sole criterion for grouping taxa.
prezygotic barriers
Barriers that impede mating or hinder fertilization.
Hox genes
Class of homeotic genes. Changes in these genes can have a profound impact on morphology.
analogy
Anatomical similarity due to convergent evolution.
monophyletic group
A taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.
hybrid breakdown
Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.
sexual recombination
Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.
relative fitness
Fitness of a particular genotype.
outgroups
Species or group of species closely related to the ingroup.
cladogram
Diagram that shows patterns of shared characteristics.
stabilizing selection
Shift that favors the mean.
temporal isolation
When two species breed at different times of day, season, or years.
habitat isolation
When two species encounter each other only rarely.
biological species concept
Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce fertile offspring.
paraphyletic group
A monophyletic group in which some descendants of the common ancestor have been removed.
speciation
Origin of new species and the source of biological diversity.
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.
genetic drift
Change in allele frequencies due to chance.
gradualism
A model of evolution in which gradual change over a long period of time leads to biological diversity.
taxonomy
A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities.
allopatric speciation
When a population is divided; leads to speciation.
clade
A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.
bottleneck effect
When a population has been dramatically reduced, and the gene pool is no longer reflective of the original population's.
founder effect
When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.
gametic isolation
When sperm can't fertilize the eggs.
punctuated equilibrium
A model of evolution in which a new species will change the most as it buds from a parent species, and then will change little for the rest of its existence.
sexual selection
Natural selection for mating success.
adaptive radiation
Evolution of many new species from a common ancestor as a result of introduction to new environments.
bionomial nomenclature
Scientific name.
behavioral isolation
Incompatible courtship rituals, pheromones, or bird songs.
homeotic genes
Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.
shared derived character
Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade.
Section 3
(50 cards)
archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls lacking peptidoglycan. Like eukaryotes, DNA contains histone proteins.
biome
Major types of ecological association that occupy broad geographic regions.
ecology
Study of interactions between organisms and the environment.
biotic factors
All the plant and animal life of a particular region.
endosymbiotic theory
Ancestors of mitochondria and plastids was prokaryotes that came to live in a host cell.
spirilla
Spiral bacteria.
liposomes
Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.
conjugation
In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.
community
All species that inhabit an area.
chemoautotrophs
Organisms that use hydrogen sulfide or other chemicals as energy source instead of light.
thermophiles
Archaea that thrive in very hot environments, such as volcanic springs.
antibiotics
Interfere with production of peptidoglycan; harm bacteria but not eukaryotes.
endospore
A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions.
the three-domain system
Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.
microclimate
Very fine patterns of climate influenced by features of the environment such as shade ares and wind patterns.
dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals.
phylograms
Diagram in which the length of a branch reflects number of changes in a DNA sequence.
gene families
Groups of related genes in an organism's genome.
pilli
Hollow tubes used to move cells or exchange DNA between bacteria by conjunction.
dispersal
Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin.
biota
Biotic factors.
cocci
Spherical bacteria.
antibiotic resistance
Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.
potential range
An area where an organism could potentially survive and reproduce.
colonies
Collections of autonomously replicating cells.
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have simple cell walls with much peptidoglycan.
actual range
Area an organism actually occupies.
lyse
Cell bursting.
peptidoglycan
Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.
population density
The size of the population within a particular unit of space.
maximum parsimony
"Occam's Razor." A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.
climate
Prevailing weather conditions of an area.
bacilli
Rod-shaped bacteria.
Miller and Urey Experiment
Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.
macroclimate
Patterns on the global, regional and local level.
extremophiles
Archaea that live in extreme environments.
Gram stain
Used to classify prokaryotes based on cell wall composition. Important for antibiotics; some antibiotics work on one but not the other.
species transplant
Movement of a species to areas where it was previously absent.
plasmolyze
When the membrane shrinks away from the cell wall as a result of water loss.
taxis
Movement toward or away from a stimulus.
abiotic factors
Nonliving components of environment.
plasmids
Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.
stromatolites
Oldest known fossils formed from many layers of bacteria and sediment.
mark-recapture method
A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations.
photoautotrophs
Photosynthetic bacteria.
capsule
Covers the cell wall in prokaryotes.
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.
biosphere
The sum of all ecosystems.
methanogens
Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas.
radiometric dating
Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes.
Section 4
(50 cards)
life history
Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival.
coevolution
Reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species.
ecological footprint
Land and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates.
trophic structure
Feeding relationships between organisms in a community.
life tables
Age-specific summaries of survival patterns of a population.
reproductive rate
Difference between per capita birth and per capita death rates.
cohort
A group of individuals of the same age.
demographic transition
Movement from a high birth rate, high death rate to a low birth rate, low death rate.
K - selected species
Life history traits sensitive to population density. Small number of large offspring, extensive parental care, repeated reproduction.
reproductive rates
Study of females to determine reproductive output and how it varies with age of female.
reproductive table (fertility schedule)
Age-specific summary of reproductive rates in a population.
emigration
Movement out of population. Decreases population size.
fundamental niche
The niche species could potentially occupy.
tertiary consumer
Carnivore that eats carnivores.
Type III
Curve that drops sharply at the start then levels off once individuals reach a critical age, as seen in organisms that produce large numbers of offspring.
producer
Autotroph.
density-dependent regulation
When birth or death rates do change with population density.
competitive exclusion
Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species.
survivorship curves
Graph of the proportion of a cohort still alive at each age.
species diversity
Variety of different kinds of organisms that make up a community.
density-independent regulation
When birth or death rates do not change with population density.
age structure
Relative number of individuals at each age.
realized niche
The niche species actually occupies.
niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources; an organism's "role".
clumped dispersion
The most common pattern of dispersion; individuals aggregated in patches.
mutualism
Interspecific interaction that benefits both species. (+/+)
ecological niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources.
aposematic coloration
Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense.
species richness
Total number of different species.
carrying capacity (K)
Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.
random dispersion
Random spacing of individuals of the same species within an area.
immigration
New individuals moving into population. Increases population size.
commensalism
Interaction between species that benefits one but neither helps or harms the other. (+/0)
secondary consumer
Carnivore that eats herbivores.
r-selected species
Life history traits maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments. Many small offspring that mature quickly, little if any parental care.
character displacement
Tendency of characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations than allopatric populations.
uniform dispersion
The pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat.
relative abundance
The proportion of each species.
life expectancy at birth
Predicted average length of life at birth.
cryptic coloration
Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot.
infant mortality
Number of infant deaths per thousand live births.
logistic growth
When limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of the environment. Forms an S-shaped curve.
keystone species
Not necessarily abundant, but exert a strong control on community structure due to a pivotal ecological role.
primary consumer
Herbivore.
interspecific competition
Species compete for a limiting resource. (-/-)
Type I
Curve that shows low death rate at early and mid-life and drops at old age, as seen in humans and large animals.
Type II
Curve that represents constant death rate over lifespan small animals and invertebrates.
resource partitioning
Differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist.
exponential growth
Population increase under ideal conditions, when r > 0. Forms a J-shaped curve.
zero population growth (ZPG)
When per capita birth and death rates are equal. (r = 0)
Section 5
(50 cards)
ecological succession
Gradual recolonization of a disturbed area; species replaced by other species which are replaced by other species.
smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).
eutrophication
Sewage and fertilizer runoff adds nutrients to lakes; phytoplankton decreases and cyanobacteria increases.
nucleolus
Small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of proteins begins.
endomembrane system
A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.
bioremediation
Use of living organisms such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems.
eukaryotic cells
Contain a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by membranes.
food web
Linked food chains.
limiting nutrient
Greater limiting factor than light in oceans and lakes.
rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
foundation species
Cause physical changes in environment that affect community structure.
dominant species
Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass.
detritus
Nonliving organic maters such as remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, dead wood.
glycoprotein
A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.
quaternary consumer
Carnivore that eats tertiary consumers.
disturbance
An event, such as storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing or human activity, that changes a community and alters resource availability.
net primary production (NPP)
Energy used by primary producers for respiration.
pyramid of energy
90% of all energy is lost between trophic levels.
restoration ecology
Applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural state.
conservation biology
Integrates ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity.
threatened species
Species that is likely to become endangered.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
human disturbance
Reduces species diversity in all communities.
secondary production
Amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to new biomass.
detritivores
Obtain energy from detritus.
cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
cytoplasm
The region of the cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
ozone layer
Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.
biomass
Total dry mass of all individuals in a population.
primary succession
Succession that begins in a virtually lifeless area.
invasive species
Species generally introduced by humans, that take hold outside of their native range.
top-down model
Influence moves from top trophic levels to bottom. (V <-- H)
pioneer species
The first species that colonize new area, such as lichen and mosses.
vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
ecosystem
Consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact.
plasma membrane
The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.
primary production
Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs.
secondary succession
Succession when an existing community has been cleared, but soil left intact.
evapotranspiration
Evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants. Correlates with species richness.
gross primary production (GPP)
Amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
pyramids of numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level.
organelles
Structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell.
bottom-up model
Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. (V --> H)
endangered species
Species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
pyramids of biomass
Each on this pyramid tier represents standing crop.
biological magnification
Toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels.
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide and water vapor in atmosphere trap infrared radiation, re-reflecting it back toward earth.
10% rule
Only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
chromosomes
A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.
Section 6
(50 cards)
glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
plasmolysis
This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.
enzymatic activity
A protein built into the membrane with active site exposed.
dialysis
The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.
transport protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
integral proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
carrier protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
solute potential
This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.
fluid mosaic model
Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.
cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
active transport
When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.
transport vesicles
Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.
peripheral proteins
The proteins of a membrane that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane.
osmoregulation
The control of water balance.
chloroplasts
Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis.
cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement.
hypotonic
Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.
turgor pressure
The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.
isotonic
Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.
Golgi apparatus
Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.
turgid
A cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.
osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
flaccid
This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.
facilitated diffusion
Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.
glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
tonicity
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.
passive transport
Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. No cell energy required.
pressure potential
This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.
channel protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
transmembrane proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
contractile vacuoles
A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.
diffusion
When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.
cytolysis
This happens when a cell swells until pressure bursts it, resulting in cell death.
cytoplasmic streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.
transport
An exchange of molecules (and their kinetic energy and momentum) across the boundary between adjacent layers of a fluid or across cell membranes.
cell-cell recognition
The function of membrane proteins in which some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
concentration gradient
A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.
intercellular joining
The function of membrane proteins in which membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together, as in gap junctions or tight junctions.
thylakoids
Membranous structures within a chloroplast that serve as the site for light harvesting in photosynthesis.
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
peroxisome
A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
aquaporin
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.
cell wall
Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
water potential
The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.
stroma
The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
lysosome
A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
mitochondria
The organelles in which nutrients are converted to energy.
hypertonic
Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.
Section 7
(50 cards)
anatomy
Study of the structure of an organism.
mucous membrane
Membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist.
interstitial fluid
Watery, internal environment of vertebrates.
second messengers
Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
exothermic
Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travels in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.
bioenergetics
Flow of energy through an animal. Limits its behavior, growth, reproduction.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
proton pump
An electrogenic pump that works largely with H+ ions.
endothermic
Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.
epithelial tissue
Tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.
receptor-mediated
A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.
endocytosis
Occurs when a cell takes in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.
membrane potential
The voltage of a plasma membrane.
ligaments
Join bones to bones at joints.
macrophages
Amoeboid cells that roam connective tissue and engulf foreign particles and debris of dead cells.
organs
Tissues are organized into:, group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions.
exocytosis
Occurs when a cell secretes certain biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.
metabolic rate
Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time; the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
cotransport
The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
regulator
An animal that uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuation.
nervous tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.
blood
Connective tissue made of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
vasodialation
Increases in the diameter of superficial blood vessels; cools the body.
countercurrent heat exchanger
In ectotherms, a circulatory adaptation that is an arrangement of blood vessels that warm or cool the blood.
homeostasis
"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".
vasoconstriction
Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
thermoregulation
Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
physiology
Study of the functions an organism performs.
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm.
muscle tissue
Tissue made of cells capable of contracting.
electrochemical gradient
The combination of forces that acts on membrane potential.
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
tendons
Attach muscles to bones.
gated channel
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
metabolic pathway
Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product.
positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
bone
Mineralized connective tissue.
acclimatization
Adjusting to a new range of environmental temperatures.
cartilage
Made of collagenous fibers in matrix of chondroitin sulfate.
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.
conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of a nongrowing, resting, fasting, nonstressed endotherm.
negative feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.
anabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
tissues
Groups of cells with a common structure and function.
Section 8
(50 cards)
fermentation
A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen.
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
enzyme-substrate complex
When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:
reduction
Gain of electrons.
free energy
Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
acquired immunity
Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.
ATP synthase
The enzyme that make ATP from ADPand inorganic phosphate.
lymphocytes
White blood cells.
active site
A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme.
activation energy
The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.
competitive inhibitors
Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.
oxidizing agent
B oxidizes A by removing A's electrons.
entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness.
noncompetitive inhibitors
Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).
enzyme
A catalytic protein.
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.
exergonic reaction
Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.
lactic acid fermetation
When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.
inflammtory response
Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.
induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
kinetic energy
Energy associated with relative motion of objects.
cooperativity
It amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates.
acetyl-CoA
Is formed when pyruvate first enters into the mitochondria via active transport.
reducing agent
A reduces B, which accepts the donated electrons.
redox reactions
When there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.
anaerobic
Occurs by fermentation, which generate ATP solely by substrate-level phosphorylation.
cellular respiration
When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
catalyst
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
oxidation
Loss of electrons.
oxidative phosphorylation
When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.
potential energy
Occurs when an object is not moving, but may still posses energy.
citric acid cycle
Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
allosteric regulation
When a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.
bioenergenetics
The study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
energy coupling
The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
alcohol fermentation
When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.
electron transport chain
Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
complement system
A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.
chemiosmosis
When energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane which is used to drive cellular work.
glycolosis
Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.
endergonic reaction
Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.
substrate-level phosphorylation
When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
feedback inhibition
A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
Section 9
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cell-mediated immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
membrane potential
The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.
endocrine signaling
Specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body.
insulin
Hormone produced by the pancreas that helps to decrease blood sugar.
synapse
The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.
resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
cell body
Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.
axon
Long nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.
thymus
Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart where T lymphocytes mature.
primary immune response
Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.
immunization
The deliberate exposure of a pathogen to produce memory cells.
cell differentiation
Cell specialization in structure and function.
depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.
helper T cells
Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
natural killer (NK) cells
These cells kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. They bind to their targets and deliver a lethal burst of chemicals to produce holes in the target cell's membrane leading to its destruction.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
autoimmune diseases
Diseases caused when the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules in the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
secondary immune response
Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.
epitope
Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized.
myelin sheath
A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.
synaptic terminal
A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
antigen presentation
The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
threshold potential
The minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
glucagon
The antagonist of insulin that helps increase blood sugar. It stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose.
presynaptic cell
The transmitting neuron in a synapse.
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
hormone
The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect.
nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.
endocrine system
The system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity.
passive immunity
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.
synaptic vesicles
Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
edocrine glands
Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
antigen
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.
memory cells
General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.
active immunity
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
immunoglobulins
Secreted antibodies.
dendrites
Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"
T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.
voltage-gated ion channels
Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.
postsynaptic cell
The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal from a neuron.
major histocompatibility compex (MHC)
Binds to a fragment of an antigen within a cell and presents it on the surface of the membrane.
T cell receptor
Antigen receptors on a T cell. Unlike antibodies, T cell receptors are never produced in a secreted form.
Section 10
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sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats.
foraging
Behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.
circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.
forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
centriole
In animal cells, a cytoplasmic organelle that organizes the mitotic spindle fibers during cell reproductions.
cell cycle
Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
fixed action patterns (FAP)
A sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that is unchangeable and usually carried to completion.
ultimate questions
Address evolutionary significance of a behavior.
centromere
The region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.
somatic cell
Any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.
synaptic cleft
The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.
cerebral hemispheres
The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
migration
Relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis.
cell division
The process in reproduction and growth by which a cell divides to form daughter cells.
enteric division
One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.
M phase
Mitosis and cytokinesis.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
parasympathetic division
A branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body ever conserves energy.
kinesis
A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.
sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
inclusive fitness
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
learning
The modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
innate behavior
A behavior that is developmentally fixed.
mitosis
Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.
neuron
Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
genome
The ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism.
behavior
The way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself.
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
proximate questions
Address environmental stimuli, genetic, physiological, and anatomical causes of a behavior.
corpus callosum
Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
sign stimulus
External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern.
biological clock
An innate mechanism in living organisms that controls the periodicity of many physiological functions.
sensitive period
A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
optimal foraging theory
Views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food.
autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.
taxis
Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.
cerebrum
Largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.
chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
social learning
Learning through observing others.
signal
A behavior that causes change in another's behavior.
effector cells
Muscle cells or gland cells that carry out the body's response to stimuli.
imprinting
Includes both learning and innate components, generally irreversible.
thalamus
Major input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size.
culture
A system of information transfer through influential social learning or teaching.
cerebellum
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
communication
Signals among animals that include sounds, odors, visual displays, and touches that produce responses.
Section 11
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clone
An identical genetically individual of the parent
hybridization
The crossing of two true-breeding parents.
homologous chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
independent assortment
The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
locus
The specific site of a particular gene on its chromosome.
sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes.
zygote
Fertilized egg. Carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.
nonsister chromatids
Different chromatids (maternal and paternal) of the same chromosome.
variation
Is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings.
interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases.
density dependent inhibition
The arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a laboratory dish touch one another.
recombinant chromosomes
Chromosomes that carry genes from each parent.
P generation
The name for the true-breeding parents.
chiasmata
X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred.
trait
Each variant of a character.
gametophyte
The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces gametes, or sex cells.
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
allele
One of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.
fertilization
Union of gametes.
life cycle
All of the events in the growth and development of an organism until the organism reaches sexual maturity.
spores
Produced by meiosis. Grow into haploid organisms by mitosis.
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism. Makes haploid spores by meiosis.
tetrad
A pair of chromosomes form tetrads made up of four chromatids.
karyotype
Photograph of chromosomes grouped in order and in pairs.
asexual reproduction
One parent produces a genetically identical offspring by mitosis.
cancer
Any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
true-breeding
Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.
haploid
One set of chromosomes.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
synapsis
Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligned gene by gene.
F1 Generation
The hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
genes
Units of heredity made up of DNA.
autosomes
Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual.
crossing over
Nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.
genetics
Scientific study of heredity and variation.
sexual reproduction
When two parents give unique combination of genes to offspring.
alteration of generations
The alteration of two or more different forms in the life cycle of a plant or animal.
character
A heritable feature that varies among individuals.
heredity
Transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.
diploid cell
Has two sets of chromosomes.
gametes
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
Section 12
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dihybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for two characters.
cystic fibrosis
A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems.
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
recombinant types
Offspring who have inherited new combinations of genes and have phenotypes that don't match either parental phenotypes.
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
sex linked genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes.
map units
A measurement of the distance between genes; one map unit is equivalent to a 1 percent recombination frequency.
chromosome theory of inheritance
According to this theory, genes are carried from parents to their offspring on chromosomes.
replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
Downs Syndrome
A congenital disorder caused by having an extra Chromosome 21.
genomic imprinting
Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
XY system
A sex determination system in which females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome and males have two different ones.
codominance
When which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.
complete dominance
When the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
barr body
A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome.
X linked genes
Genes found on the X chromosome.
The Law of Segregation
Two alleles separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes because they are on on homologous chromosomes.
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
multiplication rule
To determine the probability, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another.
Punnett square
A diagram for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
addition rule
Considering mutually exclusive events, the probability of both occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event.
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup.
cytogenetic maps
A chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features distinguishable in a microscope.
parental types
Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.
hemophilia
An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.
sickle-cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.
linkage map
A genetic map based on recombination frequencies.
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two.
deletion
A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.
monohybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for one character.
inversion
A type of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed.
quantitative characters
Characters that vary in the population along a continuum (in gradations).
F2 Generation
After the self-pollenization of the F1 generation, this is produced.
origins of replication
Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
bacteriophages
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
pedigree
A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.
nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
testcross
The result of breeding a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype.
incomplete dominance
Creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
semiconservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
transformation
A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
polygenic inheritance
An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
trisomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two.
phenotype
An organism's traits.
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
homozygous
An organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.
Section 13
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one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
there is one gene that codes for one polypeptide
ribosomal P site
Site that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.
primary transcript
The initial mRNA transcript that is transcribed from a protein coding gene. Also called pre-mRNA.
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.
lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.
promoter
A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.
nuclease
A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA.
RNA processing
The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.
triplet code
Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain.
translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.
Ribosomal E site
Site where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
terminator
In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene.
exons
Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA.
Hersey-Chase Experiment
Devised an experiment that showed that only the DNA of T2 phages enters a bacterial cell during infection.
primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
McCarty, Avery, & MacLeod
Confirmed that the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment was DNA.
RNA splicing
Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.
TATA box
A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
introns
Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.
alternative RNA splicing
Genes giving rise to two or more different polypeptides depending upon which segments are treated as exons.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
ribosomes
Complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
transcription
Synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
telomeres
Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
ribosomal A site
Site that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
transcription initiation complex
The assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase.
poly-A tail
Modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
Meselson & Stahl
Determined that DNA replication is semiconservative.
Erwin Chargaff
Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.
5' cap
The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide.
template strand
The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript.
transcription factors
Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
Watson and Crick
Developed the double helix model of DNA.
ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
polyribosomes
Strings of ribosomes that work together to translate a RNA message.
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
single-strand binding protein (SSB)
Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.
domains
Discrete structural and functional regions of proteins.
signal peptide
A stretch of amino acids on a polypeptide that targets the protein to a specific destination in a eukaryotic cell.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.
leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
codons
mRNA base triplets.
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.
Frederick Griffith
Discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.
anticodon
Specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule.
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
Section 14
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reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
restriction enzyme
A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
genomic library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
nonsense mutations
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
viral envelope
A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.
epigenetic inheritance
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
restriction fragment
The fragment of DNA that is produced by cleaving DNA with a restriction enzyme.
transposable genetic element
A segment of DNA that can move within the genome of a cell by means of a DNA or RNA intermediate; also called a transposable element.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
nucleoid
A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
capsid
The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger.
inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
mutagens
physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
cloning vector
DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
nucleic acid probe
Radioactively labeled nucleic acid molecule used to tag a particular DNA sequence.
DNA methylation
The addition of methyl groups to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression.
denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
recombinant DNA
A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
lytic cycle
A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
histone acetylation
The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins.
gene expression
Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.
plasmid
A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.
missense mutations
Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
gene cloning
The production of multiple copies of a gene.
point mutations
chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
R plasmid
A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.
sticky end
A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
activator
A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
frameshift mutation
Mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in improper grouping of nucleotides into codons.
mutations
Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides. The source of all genetic diversity.
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
vaccine
A harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host's immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen.
operon
A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
restriction site
A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme.
biotechnology
The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
operator
Region of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.
repressor
A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.
micro-RNA (miRNA)
small single stranded RNA molecules that bind to mRNA and can degrade mRNA or block its translation.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
temperate phage
A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
differential gene expression
The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
signal-recognition particle
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome.
Section 15
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fruit
A mature ovary of a flower that protects dormant seeds and often aids in their dispersal.
absorption spectrum
A graph plotting a pigment light light absorption.
pollen tube
A tube that forms after germination of the pollen grain and that functions in the delivery of sperm to the ovule.
genetic engineering
The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
veins
Bundles of xylem and phloem.
style
The stalk of a flower's carpel, with the ovary at the base and the stigma at the top.
stamen
The pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament.
pistil
A single carpel or a group of fused carpels in a flower.
carpel
The ovule-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.
ovule
A structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte.
seed coat
A tough outer covering of a seed, formed from the outer coat of an ovule.
rubisco
The most abundant protein on earth. Performs Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle.
light reaction
Part of photosynthesis that involves light. ATP and NADPH are produced. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.
double fertilization
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.
chemiosmosis
Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the thylakoid membrane. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP.
chlorophyll
Green pigment located within the chloroplasts.
ovary
In flowers, the portion of a carpel in which the egg-containing ovules develop.
reproductive cloning
Using a somatic cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.
oxidizing agent
Accepts electrons and becomes reduced.
gel electrophoresis
The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
stem cell
Unspecialized cell that can both reproduce itself indefinitely and differentiate into specialized cells of one or more types.
stroma
Fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle happens.
inflorescence
A group of flowers tightly clustered together.
thylakoid
Flattened membranes in the chloroplast where the light reactions take place.
cloning
Making a genetically identical copy of DNA or of an organism.
granum
Stack of thylakoids.
calvin cycle
Carbon fixation process in photosynthesis. Forms sugar and other organic compounds.
leaf
The major sites of photosynthesis in most plants.
action spectrum
A profile of the relative performance of the different wavelengths in photosynthesis.
receptacle
The base of a flower; the part of the stem that is the site of attachment of the floral organs.
petal
A modified leaf of a flowering plant; petals are the often colorful parts of a flower that advertise it to insects and other pollinators.
photoautotrophs
Organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.
photosystem
A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane.
sepal
A modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens.
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.
Equation of photosynthesis.
reducing agent
Donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
stigma
The sticky part of a flower's carpel, which receives pollen grain.
DNA sequencing
Determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA.
stomata
Microscopic pores in the leaf which lets CO2 in and O2 out. Also where water is lost.
nuclear transplantation
A technique in which the nucleus of one cell is placed into another cell that already has a nucleus or in which the nucleus has been previously destroyed.
endosperm
In angiosperms, a nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with two polar nuclei during double fertilization. Provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.
pigments
Molecules that absorb, reflect, or transmit light.
anther
In an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains containing sperm-producing male gametophytes form.
self-incompatibility
The ability of a seed plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals.
mesophyll
Spongy tissue in the interior of the leaf where most chloroplasts are found.
linkage map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
differences in the restriction sites on homologous chromosomes that result in different restriction fragment patterns.
therapeutic cloning
The cloning of human cells by nuclear transplantation for therapeutic purposes, such as the generation of embryonic stem cells to treat disease.
Human Genome Project
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
Section 16
(21 cards)