Section 1
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What can newborns do?
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Date created
Mar 1, 2020
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Section 1
(50 cards)
What can newborns do?
1. Can discriminate different speech sounds, but hearing is somewhat immature and affected by amniotic fluid that continues to fill space in the newborn's ears 2. Can acquire classically conditioned responses 3. Can do simple observational learning (i.e. imitate adult facial expressions) 4. Can distinguish the scent of his/her mother's milk from another woman's milk after only a few days out of the womb
Continuity vs. discontinuity
another major controversy in psychology -deals with the question of whether development is a gradual, cumulative change from conception to death (continuity), or a sequence of distinct stages (discontinuity)
Cross-Sectional Pros and Cons
Pros: -easy and straightforward (for both researchers and participants) -data from many age groups Cons: -Different cohorts grew up in different time periods -Different experiences, cultural changes, environmental changes -Doesn't provide much explanation of how or when age-related changes may have occurred (i.e. researchers don't know when the decline of a person's memory occurred suddenly of accumulated gradually over the past 30 years)
Sequential (Cohort-sequential) Pros and Cons
Pros and cons of both the longitudinal and cross-sectional *VERY COSTLY*
Sensitive Periods
Optimal ranges Times when individuals and especially receptive to environmental input, but not rigidly so
Konrad Lorenz and IMPRINTING
behavior that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object that is observed *Lorenz found the goslings will forever connect with whatever goose-sized moving stimuli they see most often during the first 36 hours of their lives - he was able to get certain goslings to think of him / his boots as their mother!
Reflexes
Innate behaviours *Programmed reactions to certain cues that do not require any conscious thought to perform EX: Newborn babies will grasp anything placed in their hands (grasping reflex) EX: babies pucker their lips and begin to suck whenever something brushes their cheeks or is put in their mouths (rooting reflex)
Alleles
Different forms of a gene (variations of the same gene)
Longitudinal pros and cons
Pros: a. researchers can be reasonably confident that the observed changes are a function of time and developmental experiences b. Same people (reduces variability across samples) Cons: a. Time-consuming, require more money --> people drop out b. Are chances generalizable to all people or just this group? (can we generalize to other cohorts)
Cohort Effects
o As a result of when they were born, the development of people in a particular cohort will be affected by the cultural and historical changes to which they were exposed - i.e. wars, recessions, natural disasters, famines, etc. o Unique experiences amongst cohorts * If If the two groups in your cross-sectional study come from different cohorts, then you cannot be sure whether the differences you see are due to development or cohort differences *
What is developmental psychology?
The study of changes in behaviour and mental processes over time and the factors the influence the course of those constancies and changes
Stability versus change
do things remain constant?
Example of assimilation:
3 years old girl visited a farm for the first time. When taken out to see the animals, she was initially terrified by the HUGE dog they had penned up. In fact, the huge dog was a cow, but the city-raised girl had assimilated the cow to her existing scheme for larger four-legged furry things (dogs) => Calling all four-legged creatures 'dogs' is assimilation
Maternal malnutrition:
Mother does not feed her body properly during pregnancy → baby may suffer from malnutrition
Schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information -organizations for the long-term memory EX: children may acquire a scheme about birthday parties, based on their experiences when they go to another birthday party, they can predict that there will be presents, some food, a cake, activities, and possibly a treat bag to take home at the end of the party.
Developmental Psych Research Designs: 1. Longitudinal Research
• Test same cohort at different times • Researchers follow the same group of people over a period of time, administering the same tasks or questionnaires to them at different points in their lives to see how their responses change *many people prefer this
Thalidomide
medicine to help with pregnancy morning sickness o Some moms that took this and their babies were born without limbs
Cohort =
any group of people born at about the same time
What can happen if you dont support the head of a baby within the first three months?
The baby can get whiplash bc the muscles arent strong enough *head and neck must be supported*
How long does it take for babies to see colour?
2-3 months
Gradual/Quantitative
= involves gradual increases in some element, such as height or weight
2. Cross-sectional
• Compare different ages at same time • Researchers compare groups of different-aged people to one another at a single point in time EX: they might compare a group of 60-year-olds to a group of 30-year-olds on a memory task to see how memory changes over time
What did Piaget hypothesize?
Through naturalistic observations of children, particularly his own, he hypothesized that young children's thinking processes might differ from those of adults -Children are NOT miniature adults: -Thinking changes 'qualitatively' -Natural-born "scientists" -Actively explore and seek to understand their world *Noticed there are some limitations in their cognitive thinking*
What factors contribute to the impact of the teratogen on the developing fetus?
Numerous factors including the dose of the teratogen, the timing and extent of exposure, and the age of the organism
3. Sequential (Cohort-sequential) Research Design
Combination of both the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods -Test several cohorts as they age • This design comprises two or more longitudinal studies, each covering the same spans of time, but conducted with different age groups
Genotype
The sum total of all the genes that a person inherits
Mapping Change
1. Stages -Discontinuous (qualitative) changes 2. Continuous -gradual (quantitative) changes 3. No change -remains constant
Milestons in motor development
**Between 3 and 5 months, child will develop strong neck muscles -Roll over, sit up, then stand up, then walking
Example of proximodistal development
i.e. we held pencils/utensils differently as children (made a fist)
Two Patterns of Physical Development: 1. Cephalocaudal Principle
• Development proceeds from heat to foot -> growth and development proceed from top to bottom *Head is large - growth proceeds towards lower body *Head muscles aren't developed EX: heads of infants are much larger in proportion to their bodies than the heads of toddlers or adolescents
Synaptic Pruning
-the loss of unnecessary connections between two neurons, a common event during development *This allows stronger connections to flourish* You don't use it, you lose it!
Piaget - how do people understand the world?
According to Piaget, all people have mental frameworks for understanding and thinking about the world -Brain builds schemas/mental structures to achieve understanding of the world --> schemas are modified to create equilibrium between environment and understanding
Brain Development: what happens over the course of infancy?
complexity of neurons increases over the course of infancy
Phenotype
the observable manifestation of the genotype, the physical and psychological characteristics that are on display in each individual
Synapses
-point where information is transmitted between two neurons -During development, more connections made between neurons are needed **As babies, we develop far more synapses than we actually need
Equilibration: a. Assimilation
One way of acquiring knowledge new experiences incorporated into existing schemas
Critical period
-age where experiences must occur *Points in development when an organism is extremely sensitive to environmental input, making it easier for the organism to acquire certain brain functions and behaviours
Stages/Qualitative
= a distinct developmental phase in which organisms behave, think, or respond in a particular way that is qualitatively different from the way they responded before
Genes
the basic building blocks of heredity
2. Proximodistal Principle
• Development proceeds from innermost to outer (Horizontally outwards) • Parts closer to the centre of the body grow and develop sooner than parts at the outer edges (the extremities) *Arms before fingers*
Physical development and maturation: What dictates physical development?
biologically programmed - genes dictate physical development (also environment, to a certain degree)
Example of sequential study:
to compare patterns in alcohol use, one study followed children from three age groups for four years (first group = ages 9-12, second = 11-14, third = 13-16) o Because of the age overlap among groups over time, they could also look at differences that might result from age
DNA
molecules in which genetic information is coded
Maternal stress (stress hormones):
-If mother is highly stressed, stress hormones may be passed onto child -Child may be depressed, and their personality will show it
Prenatal: Possible Negative Effects Environmental Influences - TERATOGENS
*Stems from Greek word terato-, meaning "marvel" or "monster" = Environmental agents that may cause abnormal fetal development, can cause damage during the prenatal period EXAMPLES: • Alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, cocaine and heroin, marijuana and nicotine --> they can interfere with typical prenatal development
Chromosomes
strands of DNA; each human has 46 (two of 23)
Define nature vs. nurture
Nature = our genetic inheritance Nurture = term that encompasses the environment around us as well as our experiences as we grow i.e. Lung and skin cancer vs brain and bone cancer => Lung/skin is influenced by environment, brain/bone isn't, its due to genes
Cognitive Development
= changes in thinking that occur over a course of time PIAGET
Equilibration
A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next -when children acquire new knowledge, their schemes change
Epigenetics
= changes in gene expression that are INDEPENDENT of the DNA sequence of the gene
Section 2
(50 cards)
(b) Insecure attachment (40%) iii. Disorganized/Disoriented
15% mixture of avoidance and resistant behaviours
(b) Insecure attachment (40%) i. Anxious/Avoidant
15% -shows little distress at separation, little joy at reunion
Meta-cognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes -you're cognizant internally of something
(b) Insecure attachment (40%) ii. Anxious/Ambivalent
10% strong reaction to mother's absence mixed emotions at reunion -Seeks close contact, then squirms away angrily
Carol Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development
o Kholberg's theory emphasized 'justice' => Boys tend to base their decisions about moral dilemmas on abstract moral values, such as justice and fairness o Women place value on caring => Instead of the abstract values involved, many girls focus more on care — on the value of relationships between the principal players o She argued that moral reasoning used by girls is indeed different from that of boys, but not inferior
Thinking displays irreversibility, centration, animism, egocentrism: a) Irreversibility
children think in rather simplistic ways about the relationship between concepts and objects, unable to think of reverse relationships EX: "Do you have a brother?" "Yes." "What's his name?" "Jim." "Does Jim have a brother?" "No."
Brief explanation of the 3 stages of Kohlberg's theory:
• In the earliest stages, individuals' moral decisions are based on external rewards and punishments • Individuals then move to a stage where they internalize the standard of others • Finally, they develop an internalized, personal moral code
1. Sensorimotor Stage
(birth - 2 years) -Understanding world through sensory experiences/physical interactions with objects (infant or toddler uses sense and motor skills) -Can only think about the world in terms of what they can sense directly or engage with in some way - objects are primarily graspable or suckable for infants -begin to acquire language
When does rudimentary understanding of theory of the mind develop?
around age 3 to 4
The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth
She developed a way to test attachment between babies and their mothers in a lab setting
Limitations of Piaget's Theory
• Individual differences in timing • Effects of social interaction and culture • Number of abilities are developed in the middle of stages; not from one stage to the next • Underestimated abilities of young infants
b) Egocentrism
-inability to take another person's perspective -Focus only from their perspective EX: Four-year-old Clinton is talking to his on the phone. He looks out the window as he talks and sees a bird in a tree. Clinton says "look at the bird, Granny!
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
• Western cultural bias • Gender bias - his initial research included boys only (only included girls later, seemed to suggest that girls were morally less developed than boys) • Emphasis on "thinking" not behaviour
Infant Abilities: Theory of Mind Sally and Anne Test
-Sally will look for her ball in the basket because that is where she last saw her ball, a child who does not have theory of mind developed yet will think Sally knows the ball has been moved to the box *Child is asked 3 questions: a) Where will Sally look for her marble? (The "belief" question) b) Where is the marble really? (The "reality" question) c) Where was the marble at the beginning? (The "memory" question) *Children too young (without a theory of mind) or with ASD will not understand why Sally does not know what they know -If they point to the box, they fail -they haven't taken into account that they possess knowledge that Sally doesn't have access to
3. Concrete Operational Stage
(ages 7-12) children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events o Able to categorize cause and effect o Still limited to understanding ideas in terms of real-world relationships (concrete) • Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations • Often have difficulty with problems that require abstract reasoning
Much of our learning happens as a result of _____
REFLEXES!!!
Object Permanance (Piaget)
Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen / out of sensory awareness => develops at ~8 months, major cognitive milestone -Piaget observed that infants don't have mental representations of the world, haven't yet formed schemas
Infants tend to fall into one of four temperament categories (Thomas and Chess):
Easy: cheerful, regular in routines Difficult: irritable, intensely negative reactions to changes or new situations Slow-to-warm-up: less active and less responsive, withdraw in face of change Unique: blend of the above 3
Her conclusions:
o Moral development occurs within social context o Cognitive and behavioural components
Based on her experimental findings, Ainsworht identified these basic attachment styles: a) Secure Attachment
60% o Infant is moderately upset when mom leaves and happy when she returns
Example of accommodation
the 3-year-old created a new four-legged scheme of "cow" to go alongside her existing scheme of "dog"
c) Postconventional
Morality is determined by abstract ethical principles EX: the right to life is universal and takes precedence over the right to property -but, laws are necessary to maintain order in society; individuals cannot break laws just bc they disagree with them or we will love all social order
What does engaging in assimilation and accommodation help us reach?
a mental balance, or equilibrium *When things are in balance, children (and even adults) are comfortable to assimilate new information --> state of cognitive comfort
b. Accommodation
New experiences cause existing schemas to change *alterations of pre-existing frameworks to acquire new information
Consequences of Attachment
Secure infants are better socially adjusted Insecure infants have more behavioural problems Prolonged attachment deprivation = long-term risks
The Gradual Mastery of Conservation
Children master conservation during the concrete operational period, but their mastery is gradual **usually master the conservation of number at age six or seven, but they may not understand the conservation of area until age eight or nine **Children's lack of conservation also may be related to difficulty in making distinctions between appearance and reality
c) Animism
inability to understand that not all things are living EX: Children may believe that a doll experiences hunger
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
Unlike Piaget, who viewed a child's development as a process of individual achievement, Vygotsky believed that constructive interactions with parents, older children, teachers, and siblings helped the child develop ways of thinking about and functioning in the world *others are critical to helping children develop
(c) Stranger attachment
o 6-7 to 18 months o Distress over contact with unfamiliar people
Harlow's experiment
he felt that attachment had to be influenced by more than just food. He put monkeys in cages and gave them a soft support structure to lean on in place of their mothers. He had one wire mom and a cloth one in a cage. In a few cages the wire mom gave the food and in some the cloth mom gave the food. In both situations even if the wire mom gave the food the monkey still chose to be with the cloth mother because she was softer and more comfortable.
Zone of Proximal Development
gap between what a child could accomplish alone and what the child can accomplish with help from others *when the child is just about to acquire the skill --> if the adult gives a gentle "push", it will encourage them to acquire the skill
B. Attachment
Strong emotional bond between children and primary caregivers - serves as an essential foundation for future relationships Many theorists believe that the relationship between a caregiver and an infant is crucial to the child's long-term social and emotional development
4 Stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
a) Preconventional:
morality centres on what you can get away with EX: if a man saves his wife she will continue to take care of his children -but, he could be caught at go to jail (not about whether its right or wrong)
What is the overlap?
zone of proximal development (aka what I can do with help)
Moral Development: Kohlberg's Stage Theory
Analyzed responses to ethical dilemmas -Focused on moral reasoning: how children come to their decisions about what is right and wrong, rather than on the particular decisions that they make
Scaffolding
developmental adjustments that adults make to give children the help that they need, but not so much that they fail to move forward -What a child can do on his own, adults don't need to provide scaffolding
Theory of the mind
o An awareness of one's own mental states and the mental states of others o Beliefs about how the mind works and what others are thinking o Helps us to predict what others will do in a given situation
Operations
ability to hold an idea in mind and manipulate it mentally
Attachment Process: 2 phases
1. Asocial phase (0-6 months): we don't attach to anyone in particular yet, anyone will do 2. Specific attachment behaviour (7-9 months): develop specific attachment to primary caregivers
4. Former Operational Stage
(ages 11-12) -cross over into mature adult thinking processes *Can think logically about concrete and abstract problems - conceptual thinking • Able to form and test hypotheses o Can now reason based on hypothetical concepts, engaging in hypothetico-deductive reasoning *Teenagers can mentally manipulate representations of abstract as well as concrete concepts
Cognitive Development: Information-Processing Approaches
o Development is continual and gradual - you have the skill and you're slowing working it up o Not stage-like o Cognitive growth occurs as information processing abilities gradually become more efficient o As children age: information-processing speed quickens, and memory capabilities improve
b) Conventional
morality centres on avoiding others' disapproval and obeying society's rules EX: if he doesnt steal the drugs people will think hes a bad husband -but, if he steals people will think he is a criminal; its against the law
Attachment Styles (Summary)
1. Attention responsive (secure attachment) 2. Attentive intrusive (anxious/ambivalent attachment) 3. Caregiver: Inattentive Unresponsive (avoidance attachment)
Cultural Variation in Attachment Styles
EX: In Japan, the mothers usually stay at home - so Japanese children get anxious/ambivalent without mother (rely on the comfort of mother) -In Germany, majority of children have secure attachment --> however the Germans had a more avoidant attachment style -Germans emphasize independence, so as such, when they encounter strange situation, they typically show avoidance attachment.
(d) Separation Anxiety
o 12-16 months to 2-3 years o Distress over being separated from primary caregiver o Shows similar pattern across cultures
d) Centration
The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects (focus on only one dimension)
Bowlby's attachment theory
Children between 6 and 30 months form emotional attachments to familiar caregivers The familiar adults serve as a secure base for children to explore the environment Formation of emotional attachments contributes to the foundation of later emotional and personality development
2. Preoperational Stage
(ages 2-7) -World represented symbolically through words and mental images (begin to develop ideas of objects in the external world and the ability to work with them in their mind) *Symbolic thinking enables pretend play (i.e. peekaboo) -Child doesn't understand conversation
Emotional and Social Development: A. Temperament
Biologically-based tendency to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout a person's lifetime -Prevailing patterns of mood, activity and emotional responsiveness
Section 3
(4 cards)