Section 1
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Deduction
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Cards (97)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Deduction
The process of moving from a general rule to a specific example
Invective
A verbally abusive attack
Irony
The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy (sadness or regret) or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language: (1) verbal irony - when the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning (2) situational irony - when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen (3) dramatic irony - when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
Logic
The process of reasoning
Allusion
A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Example: allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical (current), or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
Extended Metaphor
A sustained comparison, often referred to as a conceit. Developed throughout a piece of writing
Ellipsis
An indication by a series of three periods that some material has been omitted from a given text. It could be a word, phrase, sentence, paragraph or whole section.
Asyndeton
Deliberately leaving our conjunctions between words, phrases, clauses. Example: Gettysburg Address: "But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground."
Induction
The process that moves from a given series of specifics to a generalization
Abstract
Refers to language that describes concepts rather than concrete images
Euphemism
A more acceptable and usually more pleasant way of saying something that might be inappropriate or uncomfortable. Used to obscure the reality of a situation. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Example: Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse"
Aphorism
A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
Ad Hominem
In an argument, an attack on the person rather than on the opponent's ideas. It comes from the Latin meaning "against the man". How to use: an author may use this logical fallacy in an essay to damage the target's credibility. You are to avoid using it to develop your argument essays.
Inference
A conclusion one can draw from the presented details
Analogy
A literary device employed to serve as a basis for comparison. It is assumed that what applies to the parallel situation also applies to the original circumstance.
Image
A verbal approximation of a sensory impression, concept, or emotion
Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. How to use: you want to consider the question of what or why the author subordinates one element, and you should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.
Didactic
Writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach. Usually formal and focuses on moral or ethical concerns.
Cacophony
Harsh and discordant sounds in a line or passage in a literary work
Denotation
The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.
Conflict
A clash between opposing forces in a literary work, such as man vs man, man vs nature, man vs god, man vs self
Flashback
A device that enables a writer to refer to past thoughts, events or episodes
Antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. Example: "But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted." The antecedent of the "it" before the word "exists" is...? [answer: "all truth"]
Form
The shape or structure of a literary work
Anaphora
A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. Example: MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech (1963)
Antithesis
The presentation of two contrasting ideas. The ideas are balanced by word, phrase, clause, or paragraph. Example: "To be or not to be" How to use: the multiple choice question will ask you about something being "antithetical" or you can describe ideas as being "antithetical" in your own essays.
Balance
A situation in which all parts of the presentation are equal, whether in sentences or paragraphs or sections of a longer work
Hyperbole
A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.
Exposition
Background information presented in a literary work
Epigraph
The use of a quote at the beginning of a work that hits at its theme. (Hemingway in The Sun Also Rises)
Imagery
The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. Example: a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. How to use: On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.
Attitude
The relationship an author has toward his or her subject, and/or his or her audience
Figurative language
Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. It enables the writer to operate on levels other than the literal one. It includes metaphor, simile, symbol, motif, hyperbole, etc.
Diction
Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. How to use: For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.
Euphony
The pleasant, mellifluous presentation of sounds in a literary work
Alliteration
The repetition of initial consonant sounds, such as "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers". How to use: Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.
Connective tissue
Those elements that help create coherence in a written piece
Antimetabole
The repetition of words in an inverted order to sharpen a contrast. Example: JFK used antimetabole when he said "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."
Logical fallacy
A mistake in reasoning
Comic relief
The inclusion of a humorous character or scene to contrast with the tragic elements of a work, thereby intensifying the next tragic event
Allegory
A work that functions on a symbolic level. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. Example: an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom.
Discourse
A discussion on a specific topic
Argument
A single assertion or a series of assertions presented and defended by the writer
Colloquial/Colloquialism
Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work local color, or create a conversational, familiar, and/or informal tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects. Example: Huckleberry Finn
Dialect
The re-creation of regional spoken language, such as a Southern dialect. (Zoe's Neale Hurston in Their Eyes...God)
Connotation
The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. Example: See denotation
apostrophe
A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. Example: William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee." Example: Keats' "Ode to a Grecian Urn," in which Keats addresses the urn itself: "Thou still unravished bride of quietness." Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.
Character
Those who carry out the action of the plot in literature.
Anecdote
A story or brief episode told by the writer or a character to illustrate a point
litotes
a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: "Not a bad idea," "Not many," "It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain" (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
Section 2
(47 cards)