Section 1
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Electron Acceptors
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Last updated
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Date created
Mar 1, 2020
Cards (148)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Electron Acceptors
Cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD (to NADH and FADH2) Photosynthesis: NADP+ (to NADPH)
Phospholipid Bilayer
tails of phospholipids are loosely packed and are in constant motion; membrane contains integral and peripheral proteins, cholestrol, and glycopreotins and glycolipids; cholesterol makes the membrane less permeable to water and other substances; non-polar and small polar molecules can pass through unadied
Central Vacuole
only in plant cells, stores water and sugar, breaks down waste, and used as a mechanism for plant growth (when it swells)
Chromatin
uncondensed DNA that forms chromosomes during cell division
Centrosomes (2 centrioles)
only in animal cells, microtubules used for cell division
Polysaccharides
Plants: starch (energy) and cellulose (structure) Animals: glycogen (energy) and chitin (structure)
Active transport
movement of molecules that requires energy: 1) sodium-potassium pumps 2) exocytosis 3) endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
Denaturation
the unraveling of an enzyme due to high temperatures or incompatible pH
Induced fit
change in the shape of an enzyme's active site induced by the substrate, helps to break down the substrate
Membrane Potential
voltage across a membrane due to difference in positive and negative ions, electrons move from high to low concentration (ex. sodium-potassium pumps in neurons)
Hypertonic
solution with higher concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would become shiveled/plasmolyzed
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
nucleoid / nucleus; only ribosomes / complex membrane-bound organelles; both have same genetic coding, sugars, and amino acids
Rough ER
covered in ribosomes, secretes and transports proteins produced by ribosomes
Noncompetitive Inhibitors
bind to a portion of the enzyme and change the shape of the active site so that it cannot match with substrates, used for regulating metabolic reactions
Fats
consist of glycerol and 3 fatty acids, store long term energy, saturated = no double bond in hydrocarbon tails (no kink), unsaturated = double bond (kink)
Oxidation
loss of electrons (OIL)
The higher the substrate concentration...
...the faster the reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.
Hypotonic
solution with lower concentration of solutes, animal/plant cell in this solution would lyse/become turgid
Nucleolus
nonmembranous structure involved in production of ribosomes, a nucleus has one or more of these
Electrochemical Gradient
diffusion gradient resulting in combination of membrane potential and concentration gradient
Extracellular Matrix
only in animal cells, made of proteins that provide support for cells and relay information for communication between the environment and the cell
Active Site
region of enzyme that binds to the substrate
Nuclear Envelope
double membrane enclosing the nucleus (where genetic info is stored) perforated with pores, continuous with ER
Cofactors
nonprotein molecules that are required for proper enzyme function, cofactors made of organic molecules are called coenzymes
Smooth ER
metabollic processes (synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, detoxification of drugs and poisons)
When ΔG is negative...
...the reaction is exergonic (loss of free energy).
Flagella
only in animal cells, cluster of microtubules for motility
Phospholipids
consist of phosphate head, glycerol, and 2 fatty acid tails, tail is hydrophobic, head is hydrophillic
Competitive Inhibitors
resemble a substrate and block enzymes' active sites, can be overcome with higher concentration of substrate
Dehydration
connecting monomers together by the removal of water
Glycolysis
Input: glucose, 2 ATP Output: 2 pyruvic acid, 4 ATP (net 2), 2 NADH
Oxidative Phosphorylation
ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions that transfer electrons to oxygen
Cytoskeleton
supports cell, maintains its shape, aids in movement of cell products
Lysosomes
only in animal cells, digestive organelles
When ΔG is positive...
...the reaction is endergonic (gain of free energy).
Disaccharides
glucose + glucose = maltose / glucose + fructose = sucrose / glucose + galactose = lactose
Reduction
gain of electrons (RIG)
Conversion Reaction before Kreb's
Input: 2 pyruvate Output: 2 acetyl (w/ CoA), 2 NADH, 2 CO2
Protein structure and organization
composed of an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen, and an R group, joined by peptide bonds and folded numerous times; 1) Primary (linear sequence) 2) Secondary (helix or pleat) 3) Tertiary 4) Quaternary (globular)
Substrate
the substance that an enzyme acts upon
Enzyme inhibition may be irreversible if...
...the inhibitor attaches by covalent bonds (poisons, toxins)
*Enzymes
proteins that are biological catalysts, lower the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction (reactants at unstable transition state) can be used over and over
Isotonic
equal levels of solute concentration, plant cell in this solution would become flaccid
Protein functions (8)
1) enzymes 2) antibodies 3) storage proteins 4) transport proteins 5) hormones 6) receptor proteins 7) motor proteins 8) structural proteins
Passive trasport
movement of molecules without requirement of energy: 1) diffusion 2) osmosis (across a membrane) 3) facilitated diffusion (helped by transport proteins)
*Lipids
hydrophobic (very non-polar), consist of long hydrocarbon chains
Feedback Inhibition
the product of a metabolic pathway switches off the enzyme that created it earlier in the process
Golgi
stores, transports, and secretes cell products
*Nucleic Acids
DNA (A+T, G+C) carries genetic info, RNA (A+U, G+C) manufactures proteins
Hydrolysis
disassembling polymers by the addition of water
Section 2
(50 cards)
Genetic Map (Linkage/Cytological Map)
ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, recombinant frequencies can be used to construct it (smaller the percentage = closer together)
Krebs Cycle
Input: 2 acetyl ➝ citric acid Output: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2 (after 2 turns of the cycle)
3 types of RNA
1) mRNA messenger 2) tRNA transfer amino acids (20 kinds) 3) rRNA ribosomes
Linked genes phenotypic ratio
two large numbers (wild and mutant) and two much smaller numbers (recombinant phenotypes)
Prokaryotic cell division
binary fission: splits in 2, exact copies, quick and efficient with few mutations, but reduces amount of genetic variation
Calvin Cycle
Input: 6 CO2 (fixed to RuBP by Rubisco), ATP, NADPH Output: 2 G3P = 1 glucose
Lytic Cycle
1) virus attaches to host cell 2) phage DNA enters cell and the cell's DNA degrades (*restriction enzymes in bacteria could destroy them) 3) synthesis of viral genomes and proteins 4) assembly of phages within cell 5) release of viruses, destroys cell
Electron Transport Chain
Input: NADH, FADH2, O2 (to accept e-) Output: 34-38 ATP, H2O
Translation
1) Initiation: 5' cap attaches to ribosome which accepts an initiator tRNA at the P site (*AUG will always be 1st codon) 2) Elongation: codon/anticodon recognition and formation of peptide bond between A site amino acid and P site amino acid chain 3) translocation of the ribosome down the mRNA strand 4) Termination: ribosome will recognize stop codon and release the protein
Watson and Crick
built the first accurate 3D DNA model
Transcription
1) Initiation: promoter site (TATA) is recognized 2) Elongation: RNA polymerase adds ribonucleotides in the 5' ➝ 3' direction 3) Termination: RNA strand separates, RNA polymerase recognizes termination sequence (AAUAAA)
Alcohol Fermentation
Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 ethanol, 2 CO2, 4 ATP (net 2)
Photosynthetic Equation
Polyploidy
when there is a whole extra set of chromosomes (ex. oversized fruits); Triploidy = 3 sets, Tetraploidy = 4 sets
Somatic cell vs. Gamete
any body cell except gametes / reproductive cells (sperm, egg)
Viral Transduction
contributes to bacterial genetic variation
Dyhybrid heterozygous cross ratio
9:3:3:1
Steps of DNA Replication
1) helicase separates the DNA strands 2) SSB proteins prevent DNA from reanneling 3) primase creates RNA primer 4) DNA polymerase extends DNA strand from the primer 5) DNA polymerase I (RNase H) removes the primers 6) ligase joins the okazaki fragments of the lagging strand
Incomplete Dominance
heterozygous offspring have an intermediate phenotype of the parents, 1:2:1 ratio (ex. pink flower from red and white flowers)
X Inactivation
in females during embryonic development, one of the two X chromosomes in a cell becomes inactive (Barr body) (ex. calico cats)
3 stages in cell cummunication
1) Reception: cell detects a signal via connection of a ligand to a receptor protein 2) Transduction: the receptor protein converts the signal to a form that can cause a chemical response 3) Response: transduced signal triggers a specific cellular response
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Input: glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Output: 2 NAD+, 2 lactate, 4 ATP (net 2)
Multiple alleles
a trait controlled by two or more alleles (ex. blood type, eye color)
Meiosis I
1) Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair up and synapsis occurs, crossing over segments of the chromosomes (chiasma) to create more genetic variation 2) Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes line up at the equator 3) Anaphase: homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. 4) Telophase I...
Codominance
both alleles manifest themselves separately in an organism's phenotype (ex. roan cattle)
Virus structure
nonliving, can't rproduce on their own; Capsid: protein coat that encloses the viral genome; Envelope: membrane that surrounds some viral capsids; Phage: protein encapsulated virus that attacks bacteria
RNA processing/splicing
splicesomes remove introns and put together exons, 5' cap and PolyA tail are added
Repressible Operon
trp operon - usually on, can be repressed. Repressor protein produced in inactive shape
Lysogenic Cycle
the virus inserts its DNA into a host cell, and its DNA integrates with the DNA of the host, allows it to be replicated without being attacked for long periods of time before entering the lytic cycle
Second Messengers and Phosphorylation cascade
second messengers and kinases spread throughout a cell that help amplify a cellular signal by a series of phosphorylation reactions (addition of phosphate)
4 alterations to gene structure
1) Deletion: removal of chromosomal segment 2) Duplication: repetition of a segment 3) Inversion: reversal of a segment within a chromosome 4) Translocation: movement of a segment from one chromosome to another, non-homologous one
Testcross
breed a homozygous recessive individual with an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype to determine whether or not the individual is homozygous or heterozygous
Meiosis II
Prophase II - Telophase II act exactly like mitosis except that the resultant number of daughter cells is 4 instead of 2, each with their own unique combination of genetic information
Leading Strand vs. Lagging Strand
works toward replication fork / works away from replication fork; both always move in the 5' ➝ 3' direction
Interphase
(90% of cell's life) G1: 1st growth, normal metabolic activity (goes into G0 phase if it is not ready for next phase); S: synthesis, DNA replication; G2: 2nd growth, prepares for mitosis
Codon vs. Anticodon
codon = nucleotide sequence on mRNA anticodon = nucleotide sequence on tRNA
Light Reactions
Input: H2O (2 e-), light energy, NADP+ Output: O2, ATP, NADPH
Nondisjucntion
homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis I or II
Retrovirus
RNA virus that transcribes its RNA into DNA to insert into host cells (ex. HIV)
Mitosis
1) Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears 2) Metaphase: chromosomes line up at equator, kinetechore microtubules attach 3) Anaphase: sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell 4) Telophase and Cytokinesis: daughter cells separate, nucleus reforms, chromosomes decondense
Provirus
a viral genome that is permanently inserted into a host genome
DNA mutations
base-pair substitution; insertion/deletion; frameshift: 1) missense = different protein 2) nonsense = codes for a stop signal prematurely 3) silent = no harmful change
Cyclin-dependent Kinases (Cdks)
a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase
Chloroplast structure
Exciting chlorophyll: chlorophyll in thylakoids absorb light, which excites electrons to produce potential energy
Aneuploidy
one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number; Trisomic = 3 copies instead of 2, Monosomic = 1 copy instead of 2
Polygenic Inheritance
the additive effect of 2 or more independently assorted genes on phenotype (ex. human skin pigment)
Blood Types
A: A antigen, B antibody B: B antigen, A antibody AB: A and B antigen, no antibodies (universal recipient) O: no antigens, A and B antibodies (universal donor)
Examples of cell signaling
G-protein coupled receptor, ligand-gated ion channels, steroid hormones (dissolved across plasma membrane, intracellular receptor)
4 mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation
1) Mutation 2) Independent Assortment: homologous chromosomes align randomly on one side of the equator or another 3) Crossing Over 4) Random Fertilization: a zygote can be any combination of a sperm and egg (64 trillion different combinations in humans)
Types of cell signaling (4)
synaptic, paracrine, hormonal
Section 3
(48 cards)