Section 1
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Section 1
(50 cards)
-ose
Suffix of a sugar.
digestion
To break apart.
-in
Suffix of a protein.
tertiary structure
Results from interactions between side chains.
biogeography
Geographic distribution of species.
homologous structures
Same structure, different function. Comes from common ancestor.
cohesion
Water molecules sticking to each other.
dehydration synthesis
Condensation reaction where molecules are connected by loss of a water molecule.
tryiacylglycerol
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
isomers
Same atoms but different arrangement.
beta glucose
Monomer for cellulose and chitin.
artificial selection
Humans modifying species for desired traits through selective breeding.
anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
starch
Storage polysaccharide of plants.
structural isomers
Differ in arrangement of atoms.
chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
disulphide bridges
Reinforce tertiary structure.
solvent
Dissolving agent of a solution.
enantiomers
Structures that are like a mirror-image.
MRSA
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
glycogen
Extremely branched polymer of glucose.
solute
Something dissolved in a solution.
evolutionary adaptation
An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.
microevolution
Change in genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation.
peptide bond
Bonds that connect amino acids.
synthesis
To put together.
catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
homology
Similarity resulting from common ancestry.
polar
Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.
fitness
Individuals whose inherited traits confer an advantage have a better chance of surviving in a given environment and will leave more offspring.
quaternary structure
Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.
Fredrick Sanger
Determined amino acid sequence of proteins.
primary structure
Chain of amino acids.
purines
Bases with a double-ring structure.
natural selection
A population can change over time if individuals with more fit traits leave more offspring than less fit individuals.
geometric isomer
Differ in arrangement around a double bond.
alpha glucose
Monomer for starch and glycogen.
hydrolysis
Reaction where water split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.
cellulose
Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.
phosphodiester bonds
Bonds between phosphate group and pentose sugar in nucleic acids.
secondary structure
Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
cholesterol
Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.
pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure.
nonpolar
No partial charges. Do not mix with water.
vestigial structures
Are little or no importance to organism, but remain from an ancestor.
comparative embryology
Embryos of vertebrates share many anatomical homologies.
adhesion
Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.
steroids
Made of four rings of carbon.
electronegativity
Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.
decent with modification
Darwin's way of referring to evolution.
Section 2
(50 cards)
founder effect
When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.
sympatric speciation
Speciation without a divided population.
reduced hybrid viability
When the genes of different species interact and impair hybrid development.
Hox genes
Class of homeotic genes. Changes in these genes can have a profound impact on morphology.
relative fitness
Fitness of a particular genotype.
allopatric speciation
When a population is divided; leads to speciation.
stabilizing selection
Shift that favors the mean.
sexual selection
Natural selection for mating success.
heterochrony
Change in the rate or timing of a developmental event ; an organism's shape depends on relative growth rate of body parts.
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
disruptive selection
Shift toward the extremes.
heterozygous advantage
Maintains recessive alleles in a population,
sexual dimorphism
Differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.
quantitative characteristics
Characteristics that vary along a continuum, usually due to influence of two or more genes.
cline
A graded change in a trait along a geographic axis.
gametic isolation
When sperm can't fertilize the eggs.
allometric growth
Proportioning that gives a body a specific form.
mechanical isolation
Morphological differences prevent fertilization.
adaptive radiation
Evolution of many new species from a common ancestor as a result of introduction to new environments.
reduced hybrid fertility
Sterile hybrids due to uneven chromosome number.
genetic variation
Heritable variations in a population.
speciation
Origin of new species and the source of biological diversity.
reproductive isolation
Barriers that impede members of two different species fro producing fertile offspring.
gene flow
When a population gains or loses alleles., movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population.
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.
gradualism
A model of evolution in which gradual change over a long period of time leads to biological diversity.
temporal isolation
When two species breed at different times of day, season, or years.
biological species concept
Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce fertile offspring.
polyploidy
In plants, the result of an extra set of chromosomes during cell division.
gene pool
All the genes in a given population at a given time.
discrete characteristics
Characteristics that are classified on an either-or basis, determined by a single gene locus.
allele frequency
Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Helps measure changes in allele frequencies over time . Provides an "ideal" population to use as a basis of comparison.
mutation
Changes in the nucleotide sequence in DNA.
prezygotic barriers
Barriers that impede mating or hinder fertilization.
behavioral isolation
Incompatible courtship rituals, pheromones, or bird songs.
habitat isolation
When two species encounter each other only rarely.
hybrid breakdown
Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.
sexual recombination
Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.
allopolyploid
Sterile hybrid is changed to a fertile polyploid due to mutation ; fertile with each other, but not parent species.
geographic variation
Difference in variation between population subgroups in different areas.
punctuated equilibrium
A model of evolution in which a new species will change the most as it buds from a parent species, and then will change little for the rest of its existence.
genetic drift
Change in allele frequencies due to chance.
autopolyploid
Having more than two sets of chromosomes from a single species.
directional selection
Shift toward a favorable variation.
population
Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
homeotic genes
Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.
population genetics
Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.
macroevolution
Evolutionary change above the species level.
bottleneck effect
When a population has been dramatically reduced, and the gene pool is no longer reflective of the original population's.
Section 3
(50 cards)
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.
conjugation
In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.
serial endosymbiosis
Sequence of endosymbiotic events that led to an ancestral eukaryote.
shared derived character
Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade.
bacilli
Rod-shaped bacteria.
lyse
Cell bursting.
paraphyletic group
A monophyletic group in which some descendants of the common ancestor have been removed.
specific epithet
Second part of scientific name.
plasmolyze
When the membrane shrinks away from the cell wall as a result of water loss.
peptidoglycan
Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.
the three-domain system
Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.
phylograms
Diagram in which the length of a branch reflects number of changes in a DNA sequence.
polyphyletic group
A taxonomic grouping consisting of several species that lack a common ancestor (more work is needed to uncover species that tie them together into a monophyletic clade).
protobionts
Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane.
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have simple cell walls with much peptidoglycan.
capsule
Covers the cell wall in prokaryotes.
Gram stain
Used to classify prokaryotes based on cell wall composition. Important for antibiotics; some antibiotics work on one but not the other.
ultrametric trees
Diagram in which length of a branch reflects amounts of actual time.
Miller and Urey Experiment
Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.
colonies
Collections of autonomously replicating cells.
orthologous genes
Homologous genes passed in a straight line from one generation to the next.
antibiotics
Interfere with production of peptidoglycan; harm bacteria but not eukaryotes.
clade
A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.
paralogous genes
Homologous genes that are found in the same genome as a result of gene duplication.
cladistics
A phylogenetic classification system that uses shared derived characters and ancestry as the sole criterion for grouping taxa.
bionomial nomenclature
Scientific name.
cladogram
Diagram that shows patterns of shared characteristics.
radiometric dating
Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes.
maximum likelihood
A principle that states that when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, one should take into account the one that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time.
cocci
Spherical bacteria.
maximum parsimony
"Occam's Razor." A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.
liposomes
Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.
stromatolites
Oldest known fossils formed from many layers of bacteria and sediment.
endosymbiotic theory
Ancestors of mitochondria and plastids was prokaryotes that came to live in a host cell.
genetic annealing
Horizontal gene transfer between different bacteria and archae.
pilli
Hollow tubes used to move cells or exchange DNA between bacteria by conjunction.
gene families
Groups of related genes in an organism's genome.
systematics
Analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of present and past organisms.
monophyletic group
A taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.
phylogenetic trees
Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships.
plasmids
Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.
outgroups
Species or group of species closely related to the ingroup.
genus
First part of scientific name.
homoplasies
Analogous structures that have evolved independently.
radioisotopes
Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and undergo radioactive decay.
taxis
Movement toward or away from a stimulus.
shared primitive character
Trait shared beyond the taxon.
taxonomy
A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities.
analogy
Anatomical similarity due to convergent evolution.
spirilla
Spiral bacteria.
Section 4
(50 cards)
emigration
Movement out of population. Decreases population size.
abiotic factors
Nonliving components of environment.
big-bang reproduction
Species that have only a single reproductive opportunity, such as agave and salmon.
life history
Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival.
turnover
Seasonal changes in warm and cool water layers in lakes.
potential range
An area where an organism could potentially survive and reproduce.
methanogens
Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas.
climate
Prevailing weather conditions of an area.
extremophiles
Archaea that live in extreme environments.
dispersal
Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin.
ecology
Study of interactions between organisms and the environment.
macroclimate
Patterns on the global, regional and local level.
reproductive rate
Difference between per capita birth and per capita death rates.
territoriality
Defense of a space against encroachment by other individuals.
biotic factors
All the plant and animal life of a particular region.
population density
The size of the population within a particular unit of space.
Type I
Curve that shows low death rate at early and mid-life and drops at old age, as seen in humans and large animals.
actual range
Area an organism actually occupies.
archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls lacking peptidoglycan. Like eukaryotes, DNA contains histone proteins.
biogeographic realms
Broad patterns of distribution due to continental drift and barriers such as deserts and mountain ranges.
mark-recapture method
A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations.
chemoautotrophs
Organisms that use hydrogen sulfide or other chemicals as energy source instead of light.
antibiotic resistance
Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.
clumped dispersion
The most common pattern of dispersion; individuals aggregated in patches.
biosphere
The sum of all ecosystems.
dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals.
random dispersion
Random spacing of individuals of the same species within an area.
iteroparity
Repeated reproduction.
community
All species that inhabit an area.
semelparity
Big-bang reproduction.
survivorship curves
Graph of the proportion of a cohort still alive at each age.
species transplant
Movement of a species to areas where it was previously absent.
immigration
New individuals moving into population. Increases population size.
per capita death rate
Expected number of deaths in a population in a specified period of time.
thermophiles
Archaea that thrive in very hot environments, such as volcanic springs.
biota
Biotic factors.
cohort
A group of individuals of the same age.
uniform dispersion
The pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat.
photoautotrophs
Photosynthetic bacteria.
biome
Major types of ecological association that occupy broad geographic regions.
repeated reproduction
Species that reproduce over and over.
microclimate
Very fine patterns of climate influenced by features of the environment such as shade ares and wind patterns.
life tables
Age-specific summaries of survival patterns of a population.
reproductive table (fertility schedule)
Age-specific summary of reproductive rates in a population.
reproductive rates
Study of females to determine reproductive output and how it varies with age of female.
per capita offspring
Average number of offspring produced per individual during a specified period of time.
Type II
Curve that represents constant death rate over lifespan small animals and invertebrates.
endospore
A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions.
Type III
Curve that drops sharply at the start then levels off once individuals reach a critical age, as seen in organisms that produce large numbers of offspring.
demography
Study of vital statistics of a population and how they change over time.
Section 5
(50 cards)
density-independent regulation
When birth or death rates do not change with population density.
r-selected species
Life history traits maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments. Many small offspring that mature quickly, little if any parental care.
K - selected species
Life history traits sensitive to population density. Small number of large offspring, extensive parental care, repeated reproduction.
parasitoidism
Insects that lay eggs on or in living host; larvae feed on body of host, eventually killing it. (+/-)
character displacement
Tendency of characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations than allopatric populations.
niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources; an organism's "role".
age structure
Relative number of individuals at each age.
dominant species
Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass.
trophic structure
Feeding relationships between organisms in a community.
foundation species
Cause physical changes in environment that affect community structure.
ectoparasites
Parasites that feed on external surface of host.
energy hypothesis
Length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer.
Batesian mimicry
Species mimics the appearance of an unpalatable or harmful.
exponential growth
Population increase under ideal conditions, when r > 0. Forms a J-shaped curve.
dynamic stability hypothesis
Long food chains are less stable than short chains.
mutualism
Interspecific interaction that benefits both species. (+/+)
secondary consumer
Carnivore that eats herbivores.
quaternary consumer
Carnivore that eats tertiary consumers.
food web
Linked food chains.
species richness
Total number of different species.
endoparasites
Parasites that live within the body of their host.
interspecific competition
Species compete for a limiting resource. (-/-)
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Two species competing for same limiting resource cannot coexist in one place; one species will have an advantage that will eventually lead to competitive exclusion
coevolution
Reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species.
realized niche
The niche species actually occupies.
species diversity
Variety of different kinds of organisms that make up a community.
fundamental niche
The niche species could potentially occupy.
aposematic coloration
Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense.
competitive exclusion
Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species.
infant mortality
Number of infant deaths per thousand live births.
keystone species
Not necessarily abundant, but exert a strong control on community structure due to a pivotal ecological role.
logistic growth
When limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of the environment. Forms an S-shaped curve.
carrying capacity (K)
Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.
primary consumer
Herbivore.
ecological footprint
Land and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates.
commensalism
Interaction between species that benefits one but neither helps or harms the other. (+/0)
relative abundance
The proportion of each species.
producer
Autotroph.
life expectancy at birth
Predicted average length of life at birth.
zero population growth (ZPG)
When per capita birth and death rates are equal. (r = 0)
tertiary consumer
Carnivore that eats carnivores.
biomass
Total dry mass of all individuals in a population.
demographic transition
Movement from a high birth rate, high death rate to a low birth rate, low death rate.
density-dependent regulation
When birth or death rates do change with population density.
Müllerian mimicry
Two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.
resource partitioning
Differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist.
metapopulation
When many populations are linked.
invasive species
Species generally introduced by humans, that take hold outside of their native range.
ecological niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources.
cryptic coloration
Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot.
Section 6
(50 cards)
bioremediation
Use of living organisms such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems.
cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
human disturbance
Reduces species diversity in all communities.
facilitators
Foundation species have positive effects on other species.
top-down model
Influence moves from top trophic levels to bottom. (V <-- H)
restoration ecology
Applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural state.
ecological succession
Gradual recolonization of a disturbed area; species replaced by other species which are replaced by other species.
biological augmentation
Uses organisms to add essential materials to degraded ecosystems.
bottom-up model
Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. (V --> H)
nonequilibrium model
Communities are constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.
detritus
Nonliving organic maters such as remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, dead wood.
secondary succession
Succession when an existing community has been cleared, but soil left intact.
secondary production
Amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to new biomass.
gross primary production (GPP)
Amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
intermediate disturbance
Moderate levels of disturbance can create conditions that foster greater species diversity.
endangered species
Species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
critical load
The amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem.
pyramids of biomass
Each on this pyramid tier represents standing crop.
ecosystem
Consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact.
plasma membrane
The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.
net primary production (NPP)
Energy used by primary producers for respiration.
pyramids of numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level.
production efficiency
The fraction of energy stored in food that was not used for cell respiration.
10% rule
Only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.
turnover time
Standing crop biomass compared to production.
light limitation
Depth to which light penetrates limits primary production.
equatorial-polar gradients
Species diversity highest at equator, decreases toward poles.
biomanipulation
Technique for restoring eutrophic lakes that reduces populations of algae by manipulating higher-level consumers.
threatened species
Species that is likely to become endangered.
organelles
Structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell.
pioneer species
The first species that colonize new area, such as lichen and mosses.
species-area curve
The larger the geographic area, the greater the number of species.
evapotranspiration
Evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants. Correlates with species richness.
eutrophication
Sewage and fertilizer runoff adds nutrients to lakes; phytoplankton decreases and cyanobacteria increases.
disturbance
An event, such as storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing or human activity, that changes a community and alters resource availability.
Green World Hypothesis
Terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are held in check by predators, parasites and disease.
trophic efficiency
Percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next.
actual evapotranspiration
Annual amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from landscape.
detritivores
Obtain energy from detritus.
limiting nutrient
Greater limiting factor than light in oceans and lakes.
cytoplasm
The region of the cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
pyramid of energy
90% of all energy is lost between trophic levels.
biological magnification
Toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels.
island equilibrium model
Islands great for study due to isolation and limited size; can study species diversity and extinction rates.
primary succession
Succession that begins in a virtually lifeless area.
conservation biology
Integrates ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity.
primary production
Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs.
ozone layer
Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide and water vapor in atmosphere trap infrared radiation, re-reflecting it back toward earth.
eukaryotic cells
Contain a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by membranes.
Section 7
(50 cards)
dialysis
The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.
active transport
When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.
pressure potential
This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.
hypotonic
Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.
contractile vacuoles
A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.
glycoprotein
A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.
crenation
This happens when a cell shrinks and shrivels; can result in cell death if severe.
chromosomes
A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.
transport vesicles
Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.
cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement.
cell wall
Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
turgor pressure
The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
stroma
The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
transmembrane proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
endomembrane system
A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
cytoplasmic streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.
mitochondria
The organelles in which nutrients are converted to energy.
solute potential
This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.
diffusion
When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.
cytolysis
This happens when a cell swells until pressure bursts it, resulting in cell death.
peripheral proteins
The proteins of a membrane that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane.
flaccid
This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.
plasmolysis
This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.
fluid mosaic model
Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.
water potential
The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.
enzymatic activity
A protein built into the membrane with active site exposed.
thylakoids
Membranous structures within a chloroplast that serve as the site for light harvesting in photosynthesis.
cell-cell recognition
The function of membrane proteins in which some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
nuclear lamina
A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
amphipathic
Molecules are said to be this when it has regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Golgi apparatus
Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.
chloroplasts
Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis.
isotonic
Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.
nucleolus
Small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of proteins begins.
rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
hypertonic
Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.
lysosome
A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
passive transport
Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. No cell energy required.
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
transport
An exchange of molecules (and their kinetic energy and momentum) across the boundary between adjacent layers of a fluid or across cell membranes.
smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).
peroxisome
A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
integral proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
Section 8
(50 cards)
stratified epithelium
Multiples tiers of cells.
physiology
Study of the functions an organism performs.
inositol triphosphate
Produced by cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.
adenylyl cyclase
Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.
exocytosis
Occurs when a cell secretes certain biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
transport protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
second messengers
Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
intercellular joining
The function of membrane proteins in which membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together, as in gap junctions or tight junctions.
fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
cotransport
The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
osmoregulation
The control of water balance.
aquaporin
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
protein kinase
The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.
carrier protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
facilitated diffusion
Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.
turgid
A cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.
electrochemical gradient
The combination of forces that acts on membrane potential.
simple epithelium
Single layer of cells.
electrogenic pump
A transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane, causing a net separation in charge.
cubiodal epithelium
Dice-shaped cells.
epithelial tissue
Tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.
reticular fibers
Fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched. Forma tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues.
scaffolding proteins
A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached to increase the efficiency of signal transduction.
receptor-mediated
A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
collagenous fibers
Fibers made of collagen.
endocytosis
Occurs when a cell takes in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.
connective tissue
Tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues.
glandualar epithelia
Tissue that absorbs or secretes chemical solutions.
columnar epithelium
Cells shaped like bricks standing on end.
gated channel
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
tissues
Groups of cells with a common structure and function.
channel protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
mucous membrane
Membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist.
membrane potential
The voltage of a plasma membrane.
concentration gradient
A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
elastic fibers
Fibers made of elastin.
glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
squamous epithelium
Cells that are like floor tiles.
proton pump
An electrogenic pump that works largely with H+ ions.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travels in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.
anatomy
Study of the structure of an organism.
tonicity
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.
Section 9
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vasoconstriction
Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
mesenteries
Sheets of connective tissue in moist or fluid-filled body cavities.
basement membrane
Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm.
regulator
An animal that uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuation.
blood
Connective tissue made of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
cartilage
Made of collagenous fibers in matrix of chondroitin sulfate.
bioenergenetics
The study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
hibernation
Long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.
ligaments
Join bones to bones at joints.
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of a nongrowing, resting, fasting, nonstressed endotherm.
interstitial fluid
Watery, internal environment of vertebrates.
countercurrent heat exchanger
In ectotherms, a circulatory adaptation that is an arrangement of blood vessels that warm or cool the blood.
bone
Mineralized connective tissue.
torpor
Physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.
homeostasis
"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".
smooth muscle
Muscle that is not striated, is single nucleated.
tendons
Attach muscles to bones.
brown fat
Tissue in neck and between shoulders of some mammals that is specialized for rapid heat production.
exothermic
Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.
osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells.
positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
thoracic cavity
cavity housing lungs and heart
acclimatization
Adjusting to a new range of environmental temperatures.
daily torpor
in small mammals and birds, daily lowering of metabolism that allows them to survive on stored energy
adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat.
metabolic pathway
Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product.
vasodialation
Increases in the diameter of superficial blood vessels; cools the body.
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.
anabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
metabolic rate
Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time; the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
macrophages
Amoeboid cells that roam connective tissue and engulf foreign particles and debris of dead cells.
thermoregulation
Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
fibrous connective tissue
Dense tissue, large number of collagen fibers organized into parallel bundles. Includes ligaments and tendons.
nervous tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.
estivation
Summer torpor. Enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.
cardiac muscle
Muscle that is branched, striated, singe nucleated.
abdominal cavity
Cavity housing intestines.
bioenergetics
Flow of energy through an animal. Limits its behavior, growth, reproduction.
nonshivering thermogenesis (NST)
When hormones cause mitochondria to produce heat instead of ATP in some mammals.
loose connective tissue
Tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place. Contains collagenous, elastic, and recticular fibers.
muscle tissue
Tissue made of cells capable of contracting.
skeletal muscle
Muscle that is striated, multinucleated.
kinetic energy
Energy associated with relative motion of objects.
chondrocytes
Cells that secrete cartilage.
negative feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.
conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
heat-shock proteins
Proteins that help maintain integrity of other proteins that would normally be denatured in extreme heat.
endothermic
Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.
organs
Tissues are organized into:, group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions.
Section 10
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induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
citric acid cycle
Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
complement system
A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens.
lactic acid fermetation
When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
glycolosis
Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.
chemiosmosis
When energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane which is used to drive cellular work.
lymphocytes
White blood cells.
coenzyme
If the cofactor is an organic molecule.
endergonic reaction
Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.
enzyme-substrate complex
When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.
free energy
Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
catalyst
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
thermal energy
Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of molecules or atoms.
oxidation
Loss of electrons.
cooperativity
It amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates.
substrate-level phosphorylation
When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.
enzyme
A catalytic protein.
active site
A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme.
exergonic reaction
Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.
acquired immunity
Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.
oxidative phosphorylation
When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
potential energy
Occurs when an object is not moving, but may still posses energy.
proton-motive force
Emphasizes the capactiy of the gradient to preform work.
reduction
Gain of electrons.
entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness.
cofactor
Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.
reducing agent
A reduces B, which accepts the donated electrons.
activation energy
The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.
redox reactions
When there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.
ATP synthase
The enzyme that make ATP from ADPand inorganic phosphate.
competitive inhibitors
Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.
fermentation
A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen.
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.
electron transport chain
Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
cellular respiration
When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.
alcohol fermentation
When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.
oxidizing agent
B oxidizes A by removing A's electrons.
energy coupling
The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
feedback inhibition
A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
anaerobic
Occurs by fermentation, which generate ATP solely by substrate-level phosphorylation.
acetyl-CoA
Is formed when pyruvate first enters into the mitochondria via active transport.
noncompetitive inhibitors
Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).
allosteric regulation
When a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.
Section 11
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interferon
Protein produced by cells in response to being infected by a virus; helps other cells resist the virus.
immunoglobulins
Secreted antibodies.
helper T cells
Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.
hormone
The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect.
antigen
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.
passive immunity
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
autoimmune diseases
Diseases caused when the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules in the body.
inflammtory response
Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.
morphogenesis
The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.
graft versus host reaction
When lymphocytes in donated bone marrow react against the recipient.
cell differentiation
Cell specialization in structure and function.
primary immune response
Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.
T cell receptor
Antigen receptors on a T cell. Unlike antibodies, T cell receptors are never produced in a secreted form.
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
secondary immune response
Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.
glucagon
The antagonist of insulin that helps increase blood sugar. It stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
insulin
Hormone produced by the pancreas that helps to decrease blood sugar.
thymus
Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart where T lymphocytes mature.
cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"
T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.
anaphylactic shock
A severe reaction that occurs when an allergen is introduced to the bloodstream of an allergic individual. Characterized by bronchoconstriction, labored breathing, widespread vasodilation, circulatory shock, and sometimes sudden death.
pattern formation
The development of a spatial organization of tissues and organs.
fate maps
A labor-intensive study to produce useful territorial diargams of embryonic development.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
cell-mediated immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
memory cells
General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.
active immunity
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
growth factors
Factors that stimulate the cell to divide.
endocrine signaling
Specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body.
antigen presentation
The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
major histocompatibility compex (MHC)
Binds to a fragment of an antigen within a cell and presents it on the surface of the membrane.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
endocrine system
The system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity.
epitope
Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized.
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.
edocrine glands
Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
neurosecretory cells
Neurons that secrete neurohormone rather than neurotransmitter.
nitric oxide (NO)
Local regulator that regulates blood oxygen levels, A gas produced by many types of cells that functions as a local regulator and as a neurotransmitter.
paracrine signaling
Signal released from a cell has an effect on neighboring cells.
B cell receptor
The antigen receptor on B cells: a Y-Shaped, membrane-bound molecule consisting of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked by disulfide bridges and containing two antigen-binding sites.
cytokines
Chemicals released by the immune system communicate with the brain.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV infection.
immunization
The deliberate exposure of a pathogen to produce memory cells.
positional information
The molecular cues that control pattern formation.
natural killer (NK) cells
These cells kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. They bind to their targets and deliver a lethal burst of chemicals to produce holes in the target cell's membrane leading to its destruction.
prostaglandins
Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.
Section 12
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epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.
autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.
presynaptic cell
The transmitting neuron in a synapse.
hindbrain
The posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem.
cerebrum
Largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.
synapse
The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.
voltage-gated ion channels
Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.
recticular formation
Registers and controls activity level, increases excitement, and helps generate sleep.
postsynaptic cell
The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal from a neuron.
neuron
Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
cerebral cortex
Interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
thalamus
Major input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum.
serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
midbrain
Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight.
astrocytes
Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons.
synaptic cleft
The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.
threshold potential
The minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.
cell body
Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.
acetylcholine
Common vertebrate neurotransmitter, especially in neuromuscular junctions.
medulla oblongata
Contains centers that control several visceral functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.
axon
Long nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.
sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats.
myelin sheath
A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.
enteric division
One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.
synaptic terminal
A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
dendrites
Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
synaptic vesicles
Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept.
membrane potential
The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.
cerebellum
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
axon hillock
Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.
oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
norepinephrine
A precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses.
depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.
forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
ganglion
A cluster of nerve cell bodies, often of similar function, located in the PNS.
nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.
parasympathetic division
A branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body ever conserves energy.
effector cells
Muscle cells or gland cells that carry out the body's response to stimuli.
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.
resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.
endorphins
Natural analgesics that decrease pain perception.
grey matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in cell bodies of neurons rather than axons. Unmyelinated.
white matter
Whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons and their myelin sheaths.
dopamine
Important neurotransmitter in the CNS that acts on the sympathetic nervous system.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
Section 13
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cell division
The process in reproduction and growth by which a cell divides to form daughter cells.
agonistic behavior
Competition that determines who wins a prize, such as food or mates.
somatic cell
Any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.
sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.
associative learning
The ability of animals to associate one feature with another.
taxis
Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.
genome
The ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism.
kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
kinesis
A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.
mate choice copying
Individuals in a population copy mate choice of others.
cognitive maps
An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.
coefficient of relatedness
Probability that if two individuals share common parent or ancestor, a particular gene present in one will be present in other.
sign stimulus
External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern.
sensitive period
A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
Hamilton's rule
when C < r x B C = cost to the altruistic party r = genetic relatedness B = fitness benefit to recipient of altuism
fixed action patterns (FAP)
A sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that is unchangeable and usually carried to completion.
cerebral hemispheres
The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
optimal foraging theory
Views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food.
classical conditioning
An arbitrary stimulus is associated with an award or punishment.
game theory
Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others.
habituation
A loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
operant conditioning
Learning based on the consequences of responding.
polygamous
An individual of one sex mating with several of the other.
ultimate questions
Address evolutionary significance of a behavior.
monogamous
One male mating with one female.
communication
Signals among animals that include sounds, odors, visual displays, and touches that produce responses.
cognition
The ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself.
polyandry
One female, several males.
spatial learning
The modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment.
foraging
Behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.
imprinting
Includes both learning and innate components, generally irreversible.
ethology
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.
behavior
The way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.
proximate questions
Address environmental stimuli, genetic, physiological, and anatomical causes of a behavior.
culture
A system of information transfer through influential social learning or teaching.
innate behavior
A behavior that is developmentally fixed.
learning
The modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
inclusive fitness
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size.
polygyny
One male, several females.
signal
A behavior that causes change in another's behavior.
migration
Relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis.
chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
promiscuous
No strong pair bonds or lasting relationships.
corpus callosum
Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
biological clock
An innate mechanism in living organisms that controls the periodicity of many physiological functions.
social learning
Learning through observing others.
Section 14
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G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
genetics
Scientific study of heredity and variation.
recombinant chromosomes
Chromosomes that carry genes from each parent.
autosomes
Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual.
gametes
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
life cycle
All of the events in the growth and development of an organism until the organism reaches sexual maturity.
heredity
Transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
gametophyte
The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces gametes, or sex cells.
haploid
One set of chromosomes.
centromere
The region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.
interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases.
nonsister chromatids
Different chromatids (maternal and paternal) of the same chromosome.
karyotype
Photograph of chromosomes grouped in order and in pairs.
cell cycle
Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
centriole
In animal cells, a cytoplasmic organelle that organizes the mitotic spindle fibers during cell reproductions.
locus
The specific site of a particular gene on its chromosome.
mitosis
Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.
crossing over
Nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.
alteration of generations
The alteration of two or more different forms in the life cycle of a plant or animal.
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
MPF
A cyclin-Cdk complex that causes the cell to move from interphase into mitosis.
M phase
Mitosis and cytokinesis.
Cdk
Complex of cyclin and kinase.
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
asters
Microtubules and fibers that radiate out from the centrioles.
sexual reproduction
When two parents give unique combination of genes to offspring.
kinetochore microtubules
Connects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
chiasmata
X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred.
homologous chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.
density dependent inhibition
The arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a laboratory dish touch one another.
cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically.
restriction point
A point of no return in the cell cycle; once this point passes, a cell is committed to a full round of the cell cycle.
asexual reproduction
One parent produces a genetically identical offspring by mitosis.
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
cancer
Any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.
clone
An identical genetically individual of the parent
diploid cell
Has two sets of chromosomes.
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes.
spores
Produced by meiosis. Grow into haploid organisms by mitosis.
independent assortment
The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.
fertilization
Union of gametes.
allele
One of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.
genes
Units of heredity made up of DNA.
Section 15
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The Law of Segregation
Two alleles separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes because they are on on homologous chromosomes.
F2 Generation
After the self-pollenization of the F1 generation, this is produced.
ZW system
A sex determination system in fish, butterflies, birds where males are ZZ and Females are ZW. The egg determines the sex of the offspring.
zygote
Fertilized egg. Carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.
testcross
The result of breeding a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype.
monohybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for one character.
P generation
The name for the true-breeding parents.
variation
Is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings.
multiplication rule
To determine the probability, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another.
chromosome theory of inheritance
According to this theory, genes are carried from parents to their offspring on chromosomes.
true-breeding
Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.
phenotype
An organism's traits.
polygenic inheritance
An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
incomplete dominance
Creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.
cystic fibrosis
A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems.
aminocentesis
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves inserting a needle to obtain a sample of amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus.
synapsis
Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligned gene by gene.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup.
pedigree
A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.
XY system
A sex determination system in which females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome and males have two different ones.
barr body
A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome.
dihybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for two characters.
parental types
Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.
codominance
When which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.
X linked genes
Genes found on the X chromosome.
hemophilia
An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.
sex linked genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes.
tetrad
A pair of chromosomes form tetrads made up of four chromatids.
addition rule
Considering mutually exclusive events, the probability of both occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event.
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism. Makes haploid spores by meiosis.
sickle-cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.
F1 Generation
The hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents.
Punnett square
A diagram for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup.
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion.
hybridization
The crossing of two true-breeding parents.
recombinant types
Offspring who have inherited new combinations of genes and have phenotypes that don't match either parental phenotypes.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
trait
Each variant of a character.
complete dominance
When the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
haplo diploid system
A sex determination system in most species of bees and ants in which there are no sex chromosomes. Females develop from fertilized eggs (diploid) and males develop from unfertilized eggs (haploid).
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
quantitative characters
Characters that vary in the population along a continuum (in gradations).
homozygous
An organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.
XO system
A sex determination system in some insects in which O stands for the absence of a sex chromosome. Females are XX, Males are XO. Males produce two classes of sperm: X sperm and sperm with no chromosome. The sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
character
A heritable feature that varies among individuals.
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
Section 16
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template strand
The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript.
terminator
In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene.
linkage map
A genetic map based on recombination frequencies.
nuclease
A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA.
5' cap
The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide.
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.
cytogenetic maps
A chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features distinguishable in a microscope.
primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
telomeres
Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
aneuploidy
Abnormal number of chromosomes.
Hersey-Chase Experiment
Devised an experiment that showed that only the DNA of T2 phages enters a bacterial cell during infection.
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
poly-A tail
Modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.
bacteriophages
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
McCarty, Avery, & MacLeod
Confirmed that the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment was DNA.
semiconservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.
RNA processing
The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.
Frederick Griffith
Discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.
transcription
Synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
genomic imprinting
Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
triplet code
Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain.
trisomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two.
Downs Syndrome
A congenital disorder caused by having an extra Chromosome 21.
translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.
primary transcript
The initial mRNA transcript that is transcribed from a protein coding gene. Also called pre-mRNA.
map units
A measurement of the distance between genes; one map unit is equivalent to a 1 percent recombination frequency.
ribosomes
Complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
Watson and Crick
Developed the double helix model of DNA.
promoter
A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.
inversion
A type of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed.
single-strand binding protein (SSB)
Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template.
deletion
A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule.
nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
Erwin Chargaff
Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.
TATA box
A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
origins of replication
Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
Meselson & Stahl
Determined that DNA replication is semiconservative.
leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two.
transformation
A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
Section 17
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transcription factors
Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
exons
Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA.
operon
A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger.
point mutations
chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
missense mutations
Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
alternative RNA splicing
Genes giving rise to two or more different polypeptides depending upon which segments are treated as exons.
provirus
Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
host range
The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.
ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
plasmid
A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.
polyribosomes
Strings of ribosomes that work together to translate a RNA message.
operator
Region of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.
codons
mRNA base triplets.
signal peptide
A stretch of amino acids on a polypeptide that targets the protein to a specific destination in a eukaryotic cell.
RNA splicing
Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
capsid
The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
R plasmid
A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.
ribosomal A site
Site that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
mutagens
physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.
ribosomal P site
Site that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
wobble
Flexibility in the base-pairing rules in which the nucleotide at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position of a codon.
transcription initiation complex
The assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase.
episome
A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.
signal-recognition particle
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome.
inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
nucleoid
A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
mutations
Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides. The source of all genetic diversity.
frameshift mutation
Mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in improper grouping of nucleotides into codons.
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
splicosome
Different particles that recognize splice sites are compiled in a large assembly. A complex of RNA and protein subunits. Removes introns from a transcribed pre-RNA segments.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.
nonsense mutations
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
introns
Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.
Ribosomal E site
Site where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
domains
Discrete structural and functional regions of proteins.
lytic cycle
A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
F factor
A piece of DNA that confers the ability form a sex pili.
anticodon
Specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
repressor
A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
activator
A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.
F plasmid
The plasmid form of the F factor.
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
there is one gene that codes for one polypeptide
insertion sequence
The simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition.
Section 18
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biotechnology
The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
cDNA library
A limited gene library using complementary DNA. The library includes only the genes that were transcribed in the cells examined.
linkage map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
expression vector
A cloning vector that contains the requisite prokaryotic promoter just upstream of a restriction site where a eukaryotic gene can be inserted.
RNA interference
Blocking gene expression by means of an miRNA silencing complex.
Human Genome Project
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
cloning
Making a genetically identical copy of DNA or of an organism.
viral envelope
A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.
yeast artificial chromosome (YAC)
A cloning vector that has telomeres and a centromere that can accommodate large DNA inserts and uses the eukaryote yeast as a host cell.
genomic library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
recombinant DNA
A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
totipotent
Cells that are able to develop into any type of cell found in the body.
genomic equivalence
All cells in an organism contain the same complement of genes. These are the same set of genes that are established in the fertilized egg.
differential gene expression
The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
gene expression
Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
gel electrophoresis
The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
Southern blotting
A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.
DNA sequencing
Determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA.
histone acetylation
The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins.
nucleic acid hybridization
Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.
reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
genetic engineering
The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
restriction site
A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme.
transposable genetic element
A segment of DNA that can move within the genome of a cell by means of a DNA or RNA intermediate; also called a transposable element.
vaccine
A harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host's immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen.
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
differences in the restriction sites on homologous chromosomes that result in different restriction fragment patterns.
restriction fragment
The fragment of DNA that is produced by cleaving DNA with a restriction enzyme.
retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
micro-RNA (miRNA)
small single stranded RNA molecules that bind to mRNA and can degrade mRNA or block its translation.
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
sticky end
A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
epigenetic inheritance
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
proteasomes
A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
transposon
A transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate.
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
restriction enzyme
A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.
enhancer
A DNA segment containing multiple control elements that can recognize certain transcription factors that stimulate the transcription of nearby genes.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
gene cloning
The production of multiple copies of a gene.
nucleic acid probe
Radioactively labeled nucleic acid molecule used to tag a particular DNA sequence.
denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
cloning vector
DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.
control elements
segments of noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genes that help regulate transcription by binding to certain proteins.
bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)
An artificial version of a bacterial chromosome that can carry inserts of 100, 000 to 500, 000 base pairs.
electroporation
A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells. The pulse creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membrane, through which DNA can enter.
temperate phage
A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
physical map
A genetic map in which the actual physical distances between genes or other genetic markers are expressed, usually as the number of base pairs along the DNA.
DNA methylation
The addition of methyl groups to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression.
siRNAs (small interfering RNAs)
RNAs of similar size and functions as miRNAs that inhibit gene expression.
Section 19
(50 cards)
mesophyll
Spongy tissue in the interior of the leaf where most chloroplasts are found.
veins
Bundles of xylem and phloem.
receptacle
The base of a flower; the part of the stem that is the site of attachment of the floral organs.
cyclic photophosphorolation
Only Photosystem I works. ATP is made, no oxygen is produced, no water is split, no NADPH is made.
light reaction
Part of photosynthesis that involves light. ATP and NADPH are produced. Takes place on the thylakoid membrane.
p680
Reaction center chlorophyll in the photosystem II.
reproductive cloning
Using a somatic cell from a multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.
leaf
The major sites of photosynthesis in most plants.
induction
The process by which neighboring cells can influence the determination of a cell.
photoautotrophs
Organisms that use light as a source of energy to synthesize organic substances.
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds.
calvin cycle
Carbon fixation process in photosynthesis. Forms sugar and other organic compounds.
absorption spectrum
A graph plotting a pigment light light absorption.
chlorophyll
Green pigment located within the chloroplasts.
photosystem
A cluster of pigments embedded into a thylakoid membrane.
sepal
A modified leaf in angiosperms that helps enclose and protect a flower bud before it opens.
carpel
The ovule-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.
style
The stalk of a flower's carpel, with the ovary at the base and the stigma at the top.
pistil
A single carpel or a group of fused carpels in a flower.
determination
The point during development at which a cell becomes committed to a particular fate due to cytoplasmic effects or to induction by neighboring cells.
anther
In an angiosperm, the terminal pollen sac of a stamen, where pollen grains containing sperm-producing male gametophytes form.
noncyclic photophosphorolation
Photosystem II performs photolysis to provide electrons for the electron transport chain that drives a chemiosmotic gradient that produces ATP.
p700
Reaction center cholophyll in the photosystem I.
cytoplasmic determinants
Maternal substances in egg that influence the course of early development.
stamen
The pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament.
action spectrum
A profile of the relative performance of the different wavelengths in photosynthesis.
chlorophyll a
Only pigment that can participate directly in the light reactions.
pluripotent
Able to give rise to multiple, but not all, cell types.
ovary
In flowers, the portion of a carpel in which the egg-containing ovules develop.
granum
Stack of thylakoids.
stigma
The sticky part of a flower's carpel, which receives pollen grain.
therapeutic cloning
The cloning of human cells by nuclear transplantation for therapeutic purposes, such as the generation of embryonic stem cells to treat disease.
thylakoid
Flattened membranes in the chloroplast where the light reactions take place.
reaction center
The location of the first light driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis.
phosphoralation
Process of adding a phosphate group.
reducing agent
Donates electrons and becomes oxidized.
primary electron acceptor
Specialized molecule that shares a reaction center with the chlorophyll a molecule in the light reaction. traps high energy electron before it can return to ground state in the chlorophyll.
nuclear transplantation
A technique in which the nucleus of one cell is placed into another cell that already has a nucleus or in which the nucleus has been previously destroyed.
stomata
Microscopic pores in the leaf which lets CO2 in and O2 out. Also where water is lost.
pigments
Molecules that absorb, reflect, or transmit light.
chemiosmosis
Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the thylakoid membrane. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP.
stem cell
Unspecialized cell that can both reproduce itself indefinitely and differentiate into specialized cells of one or more types.
oxidizing agent
Accepts electrons and becomes reduced.
ovule
A structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte.
stroma
Fluid inside the chloroplast where the Calvin Cycle happens.
petal
A modified leaf of a flowering plant; petals are the often colorful parts of a flower that advertise it to insects and other pollinators.
photolysis
In the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast during light-dependant reactions, two molecules of water are split to form oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons.
rubisco
The most abundant protein on earth. Performs Carbon Fixation in the Calvin Cycle.
Equation of photosynthesis.
carotenoids
Accessory pigments that broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.
Section 20
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blue-light photoreceptors
A class of light receptors in plants. Blue light initiates a variety of responses, such as phototropism and slowing of hypocotyl elongation.
multiple fruit
A fruit derived from an entire inflorescence.
systemic acquired resistance (SAR)
A defensive response in infected plants that helps protect healthy tissue from pathogenic invasion.
elicitors
A molecule that induces a broad type of host defense response
virulent
A term describing a pathogen against which a plant has little specific defense.
vernalization
The use of cold treatment to induce a plant to flower.
hypocotyl
The part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.
dioecious
If staminate and carpellate flowers are on different plants.
short-day plant
A plant that flowers only when the light period is shorter than a critical length. Usually fall or winter.
cytokinins
A class of plant hormones that retard aging and act in concert with auxin to stimulate cell division, influence the pathway of differentiation, and control apical dominance.
fruit ripening
A burst of ethylene production in a fruit triggers the ripening process.
florigen
A flowering signal, not yet chemically identified, that may be a hormone or may be a change in relative concentrations of multiple hormones.
long-day plant
A plant that flowers only when the light period is longer than a critical length. Usually spring or early summer.
auxin
Indoleacetic acid (IAA), a natural plant hormone that has a variety of effects, including cell elongation, root formation, secondary growth, and fruit growth.
fruit
A mature ovary of a flower that protects dormant seeds and often aids in their dispersal.
coleoptile
Covers and protects the shoot as it grows upward.
circadian rhythm
A physiological cycle of about 24 hours that is present in all eukaryotic organisms and that persists even in the absence of external cues.
phytochromes
A class of light receptors in plants. Mostly absorbing red light, these photoreceptors regulate many plant responses, including seed germination and shade avoidance.
apoptosis
Programmed cell death.
photomorphogenesis
Effects of light on plant morphology.
gibberellins
A class of related plant hormones that stimulate growth in the stem and leaves, trigger the germination of seeds and breaking of bud dormancy, and stimulate fruit development.
aggregate fruit
A fruit derived from a single flower that has more than one carpel.
double fertilization
A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.
dormancy
A condition typified by extremely low metabolic rate and a suspension of growth and development.
radicle
An embryonic root of a plant.
endosperm
In angiosperms, a nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm with two polar nuclei during double fertilization. Provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.
pollen tube
A tube that forms after germination of the pollen grain and that functions in the delivery of sperm to the ovule.
day-neutral plant
A plant whose flowering is not affected by photoperiod.
simple fruit
A fruit derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels.
oligosaccharins
A type of elicitor that is derived from cellulose fragments released by cell wall damage
jasmonic acid
An important molecule in plant defense against herbivores.
tropism
A growth response that results in the curvature of whole plant organs toward or away from stimuli owing to differential rates of cell elongation.
seed coat
A tough outer covering of a seed, formed from the outer coat of an ovule.
etiolation
Plant morphological adaptations for growing in darkness.
complete flower
A flower that has all four basic floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
triple response
A plant growth maneuver in response to mechanical stress, involving slowing of stem elongation, a thickening of the stem, and a curvature that causes the stem to start growing horizontally.
inflorescence
A group of flowers tightly clustered together.
PR protein
A protein involved in plant responses to pathogens (PR = pathogenesis-related).
phototropism
Growth of a plant shoot toward or away from light.
monoecious
If staminate and carpellate flowers are on the same plant.
abscisic acid (ABA)
A plant hormone that slows down growth, promotes seed dormancy and facilitates drought tolerance.
ethylene
The only gaseous plant hormone. Among its many effects are response to mechanical stress, programmed cell death, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.
photoperiodism
A physiological response to photoperiod, the relative lengths of night and day. An example of photoperiodism is flowering.
de-etiolation
The changes a plant shoot undergoes in response to sunlight; also known informally as greening.
self-incompatibility
The ability of a seed plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals.
avirulent
A term describing a pathogen that can only mildly harm, but not kill, the host plant.
hypersensitive response (HR)
A plant's localized defense response to a pathogen
incomplete flower
A flower in which one or more of the four basic floral organs such as sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels are either absent or nonfunctional.
leaf abscission
Aging and dropping of leaves controlled by auxin and ethylene.
gene-for-gene recognition
A widespread form of plant disease resistance involving recognition of pathogen-derived molecules by the protein products of specific plant disease resistance genes.
Section 21
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