Section 1
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Steps of anaerobic metabolism
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Section 1
(50 cards)
Steps of anaerobic metabolism
1. Glycolysis 2. Alcohol or lactic acid fermentation
Amino Acid Degradation
transamination (exchange amino group for ketone group to form keto acid) oxidative deamination (remove ammonia from a.a.)
Lipase
pancreatic enzyme necessary to digest fats
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
- 2 Pyruvates enter the mitochondrion - releases 2 ATP, 6NADH, and 2 FADH2 for each glucose
beta oxidation of fatty acids
produce acetyl CoA (precursor of acetoacetate)
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.
Cytochromes
An iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells
1 NADPH produces...
2 to 3 ATP and one FADH2 produces about 2 ATP
Fermentation
A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from glucose without an electron transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product, such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.
chemiosmotic coupling
Utilization of the proton-motive force generated by the electron transport chain to drive ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP
Chymotrypsin
One of the main pancreatic proteases; it is activated (from chymotrypsinogen) by trypsin.
Glucagon promotes
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
aerobic respiration ATP
1) Uses an electron transport chain. 2) O2 is terminal electron acceptor 3) ATP generated by substrate-level phosphorylation (Theoretical maximum) is 3.1) 2 in glycolysis (net) 3.2) 2 in the TCA cycle -> 4 total 4) ATP Generated by oxidative phosphorylation (Theoretical maximum) is 6 ATP from glycolysis (Re-oxidation of 2 NADH) + 6 from transition step (Re-oxidation of NADH) + 22 from TCA cycle (Re-oxidation of NADH and FADH2) -> total 34. 5) Total ATP Generated (Theoretical Maximum) is 34+4 = 38
ketone bodies
the product of the incomplete breakdown of fat when glucose is not available in the cells
How many ATP are produced in glycolysis?
2 ATP
What requires a steady supply of glucose?
heart and RBCs
Obesity
having an excess amount of body fat BMI >30
Glycogenesis
formation of glycogen from glucose
mitochondrial matrix
The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.
Acetyl CoA
Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.
Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)
A nonprotein molecule that shuttles electrons between membrane-bound complexes in the mitochondrial electron transport chain.
protease
enzyme that digests protein
Ketogenesis
Formation of ketone bodies from fatty acids. Occurs in liver.
Trypsin
an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine
Each turn of the citric acid cycle produces
1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
Lipoproteins
clusters of lipids associated with proteins that serve as transport vehicles for lipids in the lymph and blood
substrate-level phosphorylation
The enzyme-catalyzed formation of ATP by direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
Glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Glyconeogenesis
Process of producing glucose from fat and protein
NADH
the reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration
Glycolysis
A metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP
NADH
the reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration
soluble electron carrier
a series of compounds that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor (via redox reactions), releasing energy, that are soluble in the membrane
Pyruvate
Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis
electron transport chain
A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.
What regulates the pentose phosphate pathway?
NADPH
How many NADH are produced by glycolysis?
Two NADH molecules are produced by glycolysis. One per molecule of pyruvate
final electron acceptor of ETC
Oxygen
intermembrane space of mitochondria
space between inner and outer membranes lower pH than the matrix due to the buildup of protons
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytosol of the cell
Insulin promotes
-glycolysis in all tissues -glycogenesis in the liver and muscle -fatty acid synthesis in the liver -fatty acid storage in adipocytes
Regulation of the Citric Acid Cycle
Regulation occurs at Steps 1, 2, 4, and 5. High energy molecules (ATP, Acetyl-CoA, NADH) inhibit while low-energy molecules (ADP, AMP, CoA, NAD+) activate these steps
net products of glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
Carboxypeptidase
pancreatic enzyme necessary for protein digestion
proton-motive force
The potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
A metabolic process that produces NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.
unsaturated fats
have two fewer electrons for every double bond present subseqnetly decreasing their reducing potential
Steps of aerobic metabolism
1. glycolysis 2. oxidative decarboxylation 3. krebs cycle 4. electron transport chain
Section 2
(50 cards)
spindle microtubules
the filaments responsible for moving chromosomes during cell division.
silent mutation
A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.
DNA polymerase reads
3' to 5' direction
missense mutation
A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.
Prophase
Prepare (condense chromatin into chromosomes, break down nuclear membrane, assemble mitotic spindle, centriole pairs move toward opposite poles of the cell)
chromosomal mutation
A change in the chromosome structure, resulting in new gene combinations.
Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
Advantageous = results in a benefit to the fitness of the organism. For example, the mutation that causes flies to become wingless is advantageous in an environment that is very windy. Deleterious = results in a harmful effect to the fitness of the organism. For example, a mutation that causes an organism to be sterile.
Centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
Anaphase
Apart (Sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite sides of cell)
Cytokenesis
The final stage of the cell cycle, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides, distributing the organelles into each of the two new cells.
missense codon
mutated codon that results in a different amino acid
DNA polymerase
Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
semiconservative replication
Method of DNA replication in which parental strands separate, act as templates, and produce molecules of DNA with one parental DNA strand and one new DNA strand
Telomeres
Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
addition mutation
also called insertion = an extra base is added/inserted into the DNA sequence.
RNase H
the enzyme that helps to remove the RNA primer during DNA replication
Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M
G0 = no more DNA replication or cell division. Examples include nerves and muscles. G1 = growth = make organelles, increase in cell size. S = DNA replication. Centrioles also replicated. G2 = growth = make organelles, increase in cell size. M = mitosis.
Mutation
change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information
Metaphase
Middle (Chromosomes line up in the middle)
deletion mutation
a base is taken out of the DNA sequence.
gene mutation
A change in the sequence of the bases in a gene, which changes the structure of the polypeptide that the gene codes for.
origin of replication
Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)
Apoptosis = death that is clean and healthy. Apoptosis = activation of caspases that digest the cell from within. No spilling of cell contents. Afterwards, the apoptosed cell releases chemicals that attract macrophages, and gets engulfed. Apoptosis can be brought upon by development (eg tadpole losing tail) or by immune response (infected/cancerous cells killed by cytotoxic T cells/natural killer cells).
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
Mutagen
A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
spindle apparatus
structure made of spindle fibers, centrioles, and aster fibers that is involved in moving and organizing chromosomes before the cell divides
Types of mutations
random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution, inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
DNA helicase
An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix during DNA replication
base substitution mutation
A type of mutation involving replacement or substitution of a single nucleotide base with another in DNA or RNA molecule.
Growth arrest
the cell cycle can be arrested for many reasons: Too much genomic mutation/damage causes a cell to arrest in M phase. Contact inhibition: normal epithelial cells stop growing when it gets crowded such that it's touching adjacent cells. Lack of food can also cause growth arrest.
Point mutation
gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed
centrioles
a minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division.
Centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
S phase (synthesis)
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
RNA primer (primase)
Provides the 3' hydroxyl group required by DNA Polymerase
Telophase
Prophase in reverse = de-condense chromosomes, re-form nuclear membrane, break down mitotic spindle.
Tumor repressor genes
genes that checks proliferation, promotes apoptosis = causes cancer if dysfunctional (eg: p53, Rb)
replisome
a complex of DNA polymerase and other enzymes that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
Primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
Random mutation
random changes in DNA sequence. Can be due to radiation, chemicals, replication error ...etc.
Oncogenes
genes that promote cell proliferation = causes cancer when out of control (eg: RAS, MYC)
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
nonsense mutation
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
Chromatids are
identical copies of each other if they are part of the same chromosome
semidiscontinuous
DNA replication; how formation of one strand is continuous and other is fragmented
Translation error
even if the DNA for a gene is perfect, errors during translation can cause expression of a mutant phenotype.
Complementary DNA strands are written...
5' to 3'
aster fibers
A star-shaped structure formed in the cytoplasm of a cell and having ray like fibers that surround the centrioles during mitosis
Mitotic structures and processes
centrioles, asters, spindles: responsible for pulling apart the sister chromatids chromatids, centromeres, kinetochores: sister chromatids are duplicated copies of the chromosome. chromatids are joined at the centromere. There's a protein at the centromere called the kinetochore, where spindle fibers attach to pull the chromatids apart. nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganization: for most eukaryotes, the nuclear membrane breaks down at the beginning of mitosis, and reforms at the end of mitosis around each of the two newly formed nuclei. mechanisms of chromosome movement: chromatids move apart during anaphase by the spindle fibers. Microtubules cause the chromosome movement.
Section 3
(50 cards)
incomplete dominance
Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele
double crossover
Chromosomes may trade a segment once and then trade back a sub-section of that segment so that each chromosome regains some of its own original genetic material.
complete dominance
a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
translocation chromosomal mutation
a mutation that occurs when part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to a different chromosome
Transposons (jumping genes)
DNA segments that move to a new location on the same or different chromosome -- maybe even duplication
gene duplication
The generation of extra copies of a gene in a genome over evolutionary time. A mechanism by which genomes can acquire new functions.
meiosis 1
reproduction process that halves the # of chromosomes and results in diploid cells
anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell
dominant trait
a genetic factor that blocks another genetic factor
Meiosis 1- Prophase 1
Each chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome to form a tetrad
telophase 1
2 daughter cells are formed, each daughter cell contains only one chromosome of the homologous pair.
duplications
produce extra copies of parts of a chromosome
Nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate. Can result in trisomy - down syndrome
inversion chromosomal mutation
a mutation that reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome
Tetrads
the paired chromosomes consisting of four chromatids
Expressivity
the degree to which a genotype is expressed as a phenotype
chromosomal deletion mutation
mutation where part of the chromosome is lost; body structures may be missing
what are the products of meiosis 1?
2 haploid cells
synaptonemal complex
a zipper-like structure composed of proteins, which connects two homologous chromosomes tightly along their lengths
secondary spermatocytes
Haploid cells resulting from the first meiotic division of spermatogenesis. Secondary spermatocytes are ready to enter meiosis II.
First Filial (F1)
the first generation of hybrid offspring in a genetic cross
ressesive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
locus
A specific place along the length of a chromosome where a given gene is located.
what are the products of meiosis 2?
4 haploid cells
spermatogonium
A diploid cell that can undergo mitosis to form more spermatogonium, and can also be triggered to undergo meiosis to form sperm.
gene mapping
Determination of the relative positions of genes on a DNA molecule (chromosome or plasmid) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them.
Mendelian ratio
3:1 dominant to recessive phenotype ratio of F2 generation
primary spermatocyte
a cell that divides to form two secondary spermatocytes
Heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
ovum
A mature egg cell
polar body
a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded
zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum.
penetrance
The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
secondary oocyte
An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed. The second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs.
chiasma
The microscopically visible site where crossing over has occurred between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis.
gametes
a mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
gene linkage
Traits that tend to be inherited together as a consequence of an association between their genes
Meiosis II
the second phase of meiosis consisting of chromatids separating, along with the two diploid cells splitting in two
frameshift mutation
mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
metaphase 1
Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
single crossover
leads to half recombinant, half non recombinant
Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms
wild-type allele
The non-mutant form of a gene, encoding the normal genetic function. Generally, but not always a dominant allele.
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Gametogenesis
process by which gametes are produced through the combination of meiosis and other maturational changes
Law of Segregation of Alleles
one allele comes from the father and another from the mother, so they had to separate during gamete formation/meiosis
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
Section 4
(9 cards)