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Developmental Chapter 1

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Section 1

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Evolutionary Psychology

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Mar 1, 2020

Cards (31)

Section 1

(31 cards)

Evolutionary Psychology

Front

A field that makes inferences about how human behavior evolved as a result of inferred conditions of natural selection.

Back

The three parts to the definition of learning:

Front

1. Learning is a change in the behavior-environment relationship. Behaviors may change, but they do so in relationship to events in the environment. 2. This change is relatively permanent. Thus, changes are not merely momentary. If the behavior is not relatively permanent, we have not yet learned the behavior. 3. Learning is due to experience with the environment. Maturation is a term to describe physical and behavioral changes due to biological growth.

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Behavioral Systems Theory

Front

A natural science approach to development that combines dynamical systems approaches with behavior analysis and emphasizes constant, reciprocal, and nonlinear interactions between behavior and environment.

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Comparative Psychologists

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Psychologists who study the evolution of behavior across species. Their field of study is comparative psychology. They study, for example, the similarities and differences in perceptual, motor, and social behaviors of organisms across the range of complexity from, say, mitochondria to man.

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Characteristics of development (developmental ontogenesis) that are shared with other dynamical systems:

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1. Development involves the relationship between elements, specifically the person's behavior and the environmental contingencies. 2. In development, the relationship between these elements is constantly changing. 3. The effects of the elements on each other are reciprocal. That is, not only does the environment affect the person, bu the person affects the environment. 4. Development is characterized by a large number of factors acting simultaneously. That is, there are multiple influences or determinants operating at the same time (e.g., biological, genetic, environmental, social). 5. In development, there are multiple ongoing interactions (e.g., bidirectional and even multidirectional sources, such as mother, father, and siblings) influencing one another. 6. Development is nonlinear. The trajectory of development is not a smooth, straight-line progression. Although we assume continuity in development, there may be sudden changes in the rate or form of development (called phase shifts). These phase shifts are not the same as what developmental psychologists call "stages of development." Development is emergent. The result of person-environment interactions is not simply changes in the number of cells or behaviors. Instead, new patterns of behavior emerge. The organized patterns, called strange attractors by dynamical systems theories, are not just simple additions of elements but newly organized patterns. Qualitative changes may appear as a result of organized quantitative changes in behavior. 7. Development involves multiple directions of outcomes. Changes in behavior may occasion new pathways of development.

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Phylogenic vs. Ontogenic

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Although behavioral systems approach acknowledges the importance of both nature and nurture, it regards much human behavior is learned. Behavioral systems theory rejects explanations of behavior in terms of instincts and innate habits. Instead, it proposes that behavior is a function of selection of contingencies. Thus phylogenic contingencies correspond to the evolutionary history of the species and work through survival and reproductive mechanisms. In contrast, ontogenic contingencies correspond to the developmental history of an individual and work through reinforcement of behavior. In short, phylogenetic contingencies are "nature" and ontogenic contingencies are "nurture,' and both are essential.

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Level 4: Society and Culture

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Looking at the effects of society and culture on the child. These involve higher-order transactions, not merely transactions between the child and another, but with the culture and society, which are pervasive and form the largest context for development.

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Changes Occur Across the Life Span

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Developmental Psychologists are interested in development over time. In recent years, a relatively new trend among developmental psychologists is a life span approach. The "womb to tomb' approach enables us to get a broader overview of the entirety of human development.

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Levels of Analysis of Developmental Behavior Systems

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Level 1: Basic Processes Level 2: Patterns of Behavior Level 3: Social Interactions Level 4: Society and Culture

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Contingency

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An if-then relationship. In behavior-analysis, a contingency is any event or force that depends on behavior.

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Scientific Method

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A system of making observations under well-specified conditions and using special techniques (including quantitative ones such as statistics) for organizing and summarize descriptions of those observations.

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Progressive Changes

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Development is progressive in the sense that it is cumulative. Development is built on what has come before. However, progressive does not necessarily mean higher level functioning. With deterioration of biological capabilities, changes may result in demising behavioral abilities. Nevertheless, such changes are "progressive" in the sense that new skills are built on earlier ones.

Back

The Molecular-Molar Continuum

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From Molecular (most specific) to Molar (broadest): 1. Physics 2. Chemistry 3. Biology 4. Psychology 5. Sociology 6. Anthropology

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Scientific Method Steps

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1. Formulating a hypothesis 2. Conducting direct observations of the phenomena to test the hypothesis 3. Accepting, rejecting, or modifying the hypothesis 4. Positioning new questions from the data obtained

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Changes in Interactions

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A behavior is an action of a living thing in relation to events in the environment. However, in study psychological development, we are not merely concerned with changes in behavior, but the changes in person-enviornment relationships. As we develop we learn under what conditions to emit behaviors, as well as what to do and when to do it. As we develop, the events and objects in our environment take on new functions, and therefore make new relationships between behavior and environment.

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Molar

Front

Level of analysis that encompass large portions or units of behavior. Looking at behavior as a whole.

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Dynamical Systems Approach

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1. The analysis of development into bidirectional, inseparable, and interlocking systems. It emphasizes a nonlinear model of change in which initial interactions have been reorganized so that their effects on other components of the system are ever changing. More general than the behavioral systems approach that does include behavior-analytic principles. 2. The person and the environment are in continuous, reciprocal interaction.

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Level 3: Social Interactions

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We view processes as bidirectional interactions.

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Psychological Development

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A more holistic approach to looking at development. Bijou and Baer suggested that psychological development would be defined as progressive changes in the interactions between the behaviors of a person and the events in his or her environment. The three important aspects of psychological development are: 1. Changes in interactions 2. That the changes are progressive 3. The changes occur over time and, ultimately, over the lifetime of the individual

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Nature vs. Nurture

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Neither nature nor nurture alone is responsible for development; both are. The structures of biology interact with the effects of the environment over the life span of the individual.

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Reductionism and Antireductionism

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Reductionism: Occurs when one attempts to explain behavior in terms of physiological (biological) mechanisms rather than in terms of the behavior of the whole organism interacting with its environment (psychological). It may be worthwhile when it is effective in producing an explanation. Antireductionism: Looking at it from the opposite perspective. Looks at a particular phenomenon at. a higher level of analysis. Captures the essence of person-environment interactions.

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Level 1: Basic Processes

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The most fundamental level of analysis of human development is System Level 1. At this level, we see development as a set of basic processes and components.

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Level 2: Patterns of Behavior

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The basic units are organized and reorganized. These higher-order units include characteristic behaviors such as intelligence, personality, creativity, or their facets.

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Molecular

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Level of analysis that focus on the specific individual units of behavior (the stimulus-response analysis).

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Ontogenesis

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The study of changes in individuals over their lifetimes. Most developmental psychologists study developmental ontogenesis.

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The Central Role of Learning in Development

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Learning is a basic process in human development. It is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior in relation to the environment that is due to experience. Development is the overall process - the progressive changes in the interactions between behavior and environment. Learning is a process that determines development.

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Other important aspects of the Scientific Method

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1. Validity of the observation 2. Replication of the observation 3. Control of extraneous variables 4. Internal Consistency 5. Predictability 6. Parsimony

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Behavior Analysis

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Focuses on the behavior-environment relations as the main phenomena of psychology.

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Ontogenic Contingencies

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The forces that shape the behavioral development of the individuals over their life spans. (EX: If a baby finds a rattle and discovers how to shake it and produce sound, then it is more likely to repeat the same action again. Notice the change occurred within the lifetime of the individual. In short, the baby has learned because of the ontogenic contingencies.)

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Phylogenic Contingencies

Front

The forces that shape the development of species over evolutionary time. (EX: In the arctic, if a bear is born with white fur, then it is more likely to escape detections by predators, find food and have offspring thank bear with brown fur. Thus, over time, genes responsible for white, furry bears will predominate the gene pool. The environmental forces that determine the physical and behavioral characteristics of species operate through the process of natural selection. Over time, the effect of phylogenic contingencies is that those characteristics that result in better adaptation are the ones that will be present in the genes of the organisms.)

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Phylogenesis

Front

The study of behavioral changes within a species for evolutionary time.

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