Section 1
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chloric acid
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Cards (195)
Section 1
(50 cards)
chloric acid
HClO3
ion
an element that has lost or gained 1+ electrons (cation has lost 1+ electrons; anion has gained 1+ electrons) a polyatomic ion is a group of elements bound together covalently that also carries a charge
nonmetals
upper right of table; w/ none of properties that metals have
amphiprotic
substances that can both donate and accept protons (ex: H2PO4-)
chemical formula
the representation of chemical substances using their chemical symbols + appropriate subscripts for #s of atoms
Bohr atom
model that views electrons circling nucleus like miniature solar system; each orbit w/ definite energy + electrons moving from one orbit to another + either absorbed or emitted energy difference b/w orbits
metallic crystals
form from metals in periodic table; crystals are malleable, ductile, and conduct electricity = lattice of nuclei + core electrons in a "sea" of mobile valence electrons
inner transition elements
occupying f orbitals as last electrons added to their electron configuration -occupy 14 groups that are often placed outside table -contain many of radioactive + manmade elements
malleable
a property of metals that means substance can be hammered into new shapes
nucleus
center of atom that contains protons + neutrons; comprises an extremely small fraction of atom's volume; extremely dense while rest of atom is primarily empty space
noble gas
last group -unusually unreactive with an octet of valence electrons ns^2np^6
Hund's rule
all orbitals in a sublevel must fill with one electron before a second electron of opposite spin can be added to any orbital in that sublevel
allotropic
element existing as 2+ distinct chemical structures
alkaline earth metals
elements in second group. all: -have ns^2 electrons for valence electrons -very reactive -metals that form 2+ ions
valence shell made up of all orbitals with same
coefficient
hydrate
a substance that contains a fixed # of water molecules; water molecules are written separately from formula itself + connected to it with a dot in center of line b/w the chemical formula + water molecules
liquid state
retains volume but not shape, molecules move freely in close contact, + strong attractive forces are present
adding up exponents of configuration calculates
total # electrons
mercury
Hg
metalloids
on either side of staircase line that starts between boron and aluminum, aluminum to silicon, and then to bottom of table; have properties in b/w metals + nonmetals; semiconductors of electricity Ex: silicon + germanium (used for transistors + integrated circuits)
carbon dioxide is
linear and nonpolar
methylamine
CH3NH2
amorphous
without structure/long-range crystal structure
hydrogen cyanide
HCN
frequency of a proton is ___ proportional to wavelength
inversely
transition elements
aka d=block elements --> bc last electrons added to form eleement are electrons occupying d orbitals -10 groups in center -often form colored ionic compounds -often have multiple oxidation states -often form polyatomic ions
ammonia
NH3
electron configuration
a listing of electrons within an atom based upon sublevels that are filled + relative energies of these sublevels; also the sequence in which sublevels ill
chemical compound
substance with fixed ratio (by mass or atoms) of 2+ different atoms; have definite properties that can be used to identify compound; have characteristic chemical properties that indicate what reactions they participate in and what reactions they do not
hydrosulfuric acid
H2S (--> HS-)
ethanoic (acetic) acid
HC2H3O2 or CH3COOH; household name is vinegar
lead
Pb
metals
lower left of periodic table; typically have a silvery luster (except gold and copper), conduct electricity easily, + are malleable + ductile nucleus + core electrons in a "sea of valence electrons"
carbonic acid
H2CO3
alkali metals
elements in first group. all: -have ns^1 electrons as valence -extremely reactive -low ionization energies -low electronegativities -metals that form 1+ ions
tin
Sn
nuclear charge (Z)
the # of positive charges in the nucleus (same as # protons in nucleus and atomic #)
subatomic constituents of atom
protons + neutrons in nucleus + electrons around nucleus atomic # Z = # of protons mass # A = #protons + #neutrons
Pauli Exclusion principle
no 2 electrons can occupy exactly same space at same time (no electrons in an atom have same set of 4 quantum #s)
isotope
an atom w/ a specific # of neutrons in addition to protons and electrons defined by atomic #; a given element may have several isotopes, each of which has a different # of neutrons while having same # electrons and protons Ex: C-13 has 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 7 neutrons
amphoteric
substances that can react as both an acid and a base (ex: Al2O3)
antimony
Sb
effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
inner (core) electrons shield outer electrons from nuclear charge; outer electrons are attracted by a nuclear charge that is approximately = to # valence electrons atomic radius decreases from left to right because Zeff increases as # valence electrons increases; this increase in Zeff increases attractive force on valence electrons, resulting in smaller atoms
halogen
elements in next to last group; reactive elements w/ ns^2, np^5 valence electron structure -commonly form salts (halide is another name for salt) with metals -generally have high electronegativities -in simple compounds, tend to form only one bond (however, halogens form multiple bonds with oxygen + other halogens)
the ___ proton of H2SO4 is a strong acid
first
solid state
retains both volume and shape and molecules relatively rigid in a crystal lattice
methanoic (formic) acid
HCHO2 or HCOOH; the "sting" of many biting insects (e.g., red ants)
tungsten
W
gas state
assumes volume + shape of a container, molecules are almost totally independent of each other, there is little in the way of attractive forces, and it is highly compressible
propanoic acid
HC3H5O2 or CH3CH2COOH
Section 2
(50 cards)
geometric shape of sp^2 hybridized
trigonal planar
symmetry
simple geometric property where a structure may be rotated by some angle <360 degrees, and after rotation, molecule has same configuration as before rotation polarity can be deduced from bond polarity and molecular symmetry symmetrical molecules = generally nonpolar, even if individual bonds that make up molecule are very polar nonsymmetrical molecules generally polar unless bond polarities = 0 polarity, deduced from molecular geometry, can be used to understand many physical properties such as boiling point, vapor pressure, viscosity, surface tension, etc., of a wide variety of substances
polar vs. nonpolar bonds and molecules
bond polarity indicates distribution of electrons b/w 2 atoms on either end of a bond compared to unbonded atoms -if bonded and unbonded states have same distributions --> bond is nonpolar -occurs when difference in electronegativity of 2 atoms = 0 -if difference in electronegativities is not 0, bond will be polar -larger value of difference in electronegativities, larger bond polarity molecular polarity is the vector -- sum of bond polarities -therefore, a nonpolar molecule can have polar bonds -symmetrical molecules will be nonpolar because symmetry cancels bond polarity -molecular polarity = expressed as dipole moment
supercooling
property --> can be cooled to temperatures below melting points without solidifying
normal melting point
temperature at which a substance melts at 1.00 atm of pressure also freezing point of a liquid NOT a good measure of IMFs
geometric shape of sp hybridized
linear
pi bond
electron density outside internuclear axis bond order = 2 bond strength is almost 2x bond frequency is higher
soap
a salt of a long chain (>18 carbon atoms) organic acid can be prepared by heating a strong base with organic acid (hydrocarbon chain dissolves nonpolar and polar head dissolves polar/ionic)
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
valence electrons will repel each other until as far apart as possible # of electron pairs that repel each other = sum of # atoms bonded to a central atom along with any nonbonding (lone) pairs
atomic orbital
the region in space, outside the nucleus, that has a high probability of containing an electron specific shapes and sizes as defined by quantum #s
bond order
the average number of bonds per atom covalently bonded to a central tom may be related to bond strength, bond vibrational frequency, and bond length = (total sigma and pi bonds)/(#atoms bonded to central atom)
weak electrolytes are represented by
weak acids + bases + a few ions, such as Hg22+ ion; partially ionize in solution
binary molecule
contains 2 DIFFERENT atoms (Ex: HCl, H2S)
real gases
have volume + possess attractive/repulsive forces act most like ideal when pressure is low and temperature is high
dipole
the representation of a polar molecule that is partially positive on one end and partially negative on the other term reminds us that a polar molecule has only 2 poles (1 positive and 1 negative), no matter how many + or - charges are present and no matter how many polar bonds are present DO NOT CONFUSE DIPOLES WITH ANIONS AND CATIONS symbols delta + and delta - often used to designate polar ends of molecule symbol -[--> is also used to depict
induced dipole
a dipole created from a nonpolar arrangement of electrons when an ion or polar molecule is nearby one induced dipole can induce a dipole in a neighboring nonpolar substance ease with which induced dipoles can be created is related to polarizability of electron clouds involved in nonpolar molecules, called london dispersion forces
electron affinity
energy released or absorbed when an electron is added to an atom relative values of which help explain why monatomic anions form and which monatomic anions are most stable
hydrogen bond
an extra strong dipole-dipole IMF due to large electronegativity difference b/w H and N, O, and F explains variety of physical properties, such as extraordinary melting and boiling points, due to strong attractive forces explains how DNA strands attract to each other NOT AN ACTUAL BOND, JUST AN EXTRA STRONG IMF
diagonal relationship
some properties of atoms, as arranged in periodic table, vary regularly from lower left corner to upper right corner ex: electronegativity, ionization energy, atomic radius, ionic radius + electron affinity
Base by Brønsted Theory
a substance that is a proton acceptor
ideal gas
obeys ideal gas laws conceptually has no volume + no attractive/repulsive forces with other molecules
escape energy
minimum kinetic energy of a molecule in a liquid needed for transformation into a gas molecules attracting each other condense into liquid phase overcoming intermolecular attractive forces of liquid is necessary for a molecule to reenter vapor state may also be related to escape velocity for a specific molecule
hybrid orbital
an orbital constructed by combining electrons, usually from s, p, and d orbitals, into a new orbital where electrons all have same properties -designated sp, sp^2, and sp^3 explain why molecular geometries do not often correspond to geometries of atomic orbitals usually corresponds to geometry expected from VSEPR Theory
sigma bond
electron density lies along internuclear axis bond order = 1 present in all covalent bonds
instantaneous dipoles (aka London dispersion forces)
explain why nonpolar substances condense from a gas to a liquid caused by momentary distortions of electron cloud around atoms and molecules that gives them momentary polarity --> causes more induced dipoles + combination produces sufficient attractive forces to result in condensation of nonpolar substances
strong electrolytes are ____ whereas others are ____ that ionize, such as HCl
ionic solids molecular compounds
electromagnetic spectrum
in order of increasing energy: radio waves microwaves infrared visible UV x rays gamma rays cosmic rays
supersaturated solution
contains more solute dissolved than a saturated solution metastable and may spontaneously revert to saturated solution with a precipitate present
electronegaivity
measure of atom's tendency to attract electrons difference in electronegativities of 2 atoms indicates direction and magnitude of bond's polarity one of diagonal periodic relationships F has highest; Fr has lowest
covalent bond
basic idea is that sharing a pair of electrons imparts stability to a pair of atoms; stability is called a bond sharing of electrons enables different atoms, including some metals of moderate electronegativity, to obtain a stable electron configuration without the formation of ions stable electron configurations are often those that mimic the electron configuration of noble gases
ionization
removal or addition of an electron from an atom or molecule to form ions from a neutral molecule OR when MOLECULAR compound breaks apart into ions
a bond is predominantly ionic if the difference in electronegativities of atoms is greater than
1.7
polarizability
tendency for electron cloud of an atom or molecule to be deformed the more polarizable an electron cloud, the easier it is to form an induced dipole
diatomic molecule
contains only 2 atoms (Ex: HCl, H2)
vapor pressure
pressure developed by a liquid or solid in a closed container at constant temperature
normal boiling point
temperature at which vapor pressure of a liquid = 760 torr (1.00 atm) of pressure -also temperatuer at which a gas condenses -a good measure of IMFs
surface tension
added attractive force per molecule at surface of a liquid causes liquids to assume shapes that minimize surface area liquid droplets are spherical to minimize surface area
resonance
concept used to describe a molecule or polyatomic ion that can be drawn with 2+ equivalent structures called resonance structures none exists in reality; real viewed as blend of all resonance structures resonance arrow (<-->) used to show that 2+ structures are related to each other as resonance structures common molecules such as SO2 and SO3 and ions such as NO3- and SO42- have resonance structures REMEMBER: electrons do NOT move from one resonance structure to the next
lewis structure
a structure of molecules based on concept that most atoms try to achieve noble gas electronic configurations by sharing electrons On AP exam, answer will be graded as INCORRECT if ALL THE ELECTRONS are not explicitly shown
network crystals
covalent bonding extends over many molecules, even to entire sample if crystals are perfect Ex: diamond, SiO2
Base by Arrhenius Theory
any compound which increases the hydroxide concentration of a solution
viscosity
ability of a fluid to flow the easier a fluid flows, the LOWER its viscosity related to how strongly molecules in a liquid are attracted to each other
geometric shape of sp^3 hybridized
tetrahedral
internuclear axis
imaginary line connecting nuclei of 2 atoms allows description of location of electrons in various types of chemical bonds if there is a high density of electrons along internuclear axis, a sigma bond exists if a high density of electrons appears above and below internuclear axis, pi bond is also present
nonelectrolytes are represented by
many soluble organic compounds, such as sugars and small alcohols
electrolytes
substances that result in ions in solution
pressure
force acting per unit area on a surface mass x acceleration (in physics) includes microscopic detail of molecules striking a surface (in chemistry) force of molecules is due to kinetic energy of all molecules striking the surface
superheating
property --> can be heated to temperatures above normal boiling points without boiling
molecular crystals
made of molecules that are generally held together with London dispersion forces--> realatively weak crystals soft, insoluble in H2O, not conductive Ex: glucose, stearic acid (a wax)
dissociation
when an ionic substance simply separates its ions upon dissolution
Section 3
(50 cards)
Sketch a graph of distribution of kinetic energy distribution of gas molecules at a particular temperature Note point on graph that approximates average KE of all molecules
#363
NO3- Lewis
trigonal pyramidal
closed system
energy can be transferred b/w system and surroundings but matter cannot be transferred
SO32-
trigonal pyramidal
PO43-
tetrahedral
explanation for chemical equations that CANNOT have fractions
on atomic scale, cannot have only part of an atom, molecule, or ion
square pyramidal geometry
6 total groups; 1 unpaired 90 degree bond angles
Collision Theory
a rxn proceeds at rate = # effective collisions/unit time effective collisions are those where KE exceeds a minimum value and those collisions where molecules collide in appropriate orientation treats collisions as if hard spheres (think billiard balls) are colliding
ClO4-
tetrahedral
CH2Cl2
dichloromethane tetrahedral sp^3 hybridized 1 = bond order polar --> Cl partial - and H partial + no resonance structures
NO3-
nitrate ion trigonal planar sp^2 hybridized 1.33 = bond order symmetrical nonpolar 3 resonance structures
metastable
physical situation where a material is stable until disturbed in some manner supercooled and superheated liquids =
catalyst
substance that speeds up rate of chemical reaction by providing alternate reaction pathway with lower activation energy; not consumed in reaction heterogeneous if in different phase than reactants homogeneous if in same phase as reactants
trigonal pyramidal geometry
bond angles slightly less than 109 degrees 4 total groups; 1 unpaired
titration
experimental procedure for reacting 2 solutions in order to determine quantity or concentration of one of solutions requires a standard solution of known concentration requires a buret to precisely add titrant to reaction requires method to detect endpoint--> color indicators + pH meters
trigonal bipyramidal structure
90 + 120 degree angles 5 total groups
Transition State Theory
concerns details of events and energy changes that occur as 2 molecules collide -KE of colliding particles is converted to PE; if PE is sufficient, products may be formed--> minimum PE needed for successful rxn = activation energy -in process of colliding, molecules break old bonds and create new ones; structure of colliding particles with bonds partially broken and others partial form = transition state..orientation of collision is important here -convenient depiction = PE diagram--> potential energy as reaction progresses --> illustrate activation energy and heat of reaction, which is difference in PE b/w products and reactants
isolated system
neither energy nor matter can be transferred to surrounding; a vacuum flask (Dewar flask) approximates an isolated system
open system
both matter and energy may be exchanged with surroundings
lone pairs
electron pairs in lewis structures that are not used for bonding
explanation for chemical equations with fractions
on mole scale can easily measure fraction of a mol
SO32- geometry
trigonal pyramidal 3 resonance structures
SO3 geometry
trigonal planar 3 resonance structures
isomers
distinctly different compounds with same elemental composition
SF6 is
sulfur hexafluoride octahedron 1 = bond order symmetrical nonpolar no resonance structures
PCl5 Lewis
trigonal bipyramidal
Kinetic Molecular Theory
describes motion of molecules in gas phase -on molecular level, it explains gas laws, gas pressure, and effusion and diffusion rates + effect of temperature on behavior of gases -direct relationship b/w average KE and Kelvin temp -dynamic nature of gases in constant rapid motion -collisions = perfectly elastic
KE=
(1/2) mv^2
orbital
region of space that may be occupied by a maximum of 2 electrons
bond angles in octahedral geometry
90 degrees (6 groups)
Graham's law of effusion
r = rate of effusion M = atomic mass or molar mass
half-life
time required for half of reactants to be consumed in a chemical reaction related to various kinetic quantities depending upon nature of reaction
Ion-electron method to balance more complex redox equations
1. write 2 half-reactions 2. balance all atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen 3. balance oxygen with H2O 4. balance hydrogen with H+ 5. balance charges with electrons 6. equalize charges in 2 half-reactions 7. add half-reactions and cancel like items to simplify if reaction must be balanced in basic solution, use following additional step 8. add OH- to = H+ to BOTH sides, combine H+ and OH- to make H2O; cancel like terms
titration curve of strong acid being titrated with strong base
SO42-
sulfate ion tetrahedron sp^3 hybridized 1.5 = bond order symmetrical nonpolar
PCl3 Lewis
trigonal pyramidal
titration curve
pH vs. volume of titrant added to sample
formation reaction
written equation has only one mol of one compounds as product and reactants are elements at standard state
isoelectronic
any 2 substances that have identical electron configurations
CO32- Lewis
trigonal pyramidal
Faraday's constant
relationship b/w Coulomb, C, and moles of electrons
PCl5
phosphorus pentachloride trigonal bipyramidal 1 = bond order nonpolar no resonance structures
square planar geometry
6 total groups; 2 unpaired 90 degree bond angles
elementary reaction or process
written chemical equation represents actual interaction of molecules, atoms, or ions on atomic scale usually unimolecular or bimolecular and coefficients are exponents in rate law reaction mechanism is composed of elementary reactions that add up to overall reaction
steady-state assumption
concentrations of intermediates may be mathematically eliminated by assuming that all prior fast steps are in chemical equilibirum
formula for hydrogen sulfide
H2S precipitates most metals distinctive "rotten egg" odor
rate constant
constant in direct relationship between amount of reacting substance and rate of reaction
SO3 is
sulfur trioxide trigonal planar sp^2 hybridized 1.33 = bond order nonpolar 3 resonance structures
activation complex
when molecules collide in a chemical reaction, reactants transform into products this transformation coincides with conversion of reactants' KE to PE and then back to KE of products =structure of atom when PE at maximum
supernatant
liquid remaining above solid after it settles from mixture of centrifugation
Section 4
(45 cards)