Section 1
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Distillation
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Cards (232)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Distillation
Depends on differences in volatility
1 standard atmosphere
1 atm, 760 mm Hg, 760 torr, 101,325 Pa
Dalton's Atomic Theory
Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms of a given element are identical. Chemical compounds are forms when atoms of different elements combine with each other. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms (changes in the way they are bound together.)
Rutherford
Gold Foil Experiment, discovered nuclei, atoms have a lot of space
Dilution Formula
M1V1 = M2V2
Density
mass / volume
Heat
Transfer of energy with temperature
Work
Force acting over a distance
Boyle's Law
P1V1 = P2V2
Arrhenius base
Produces OH- in water
Potential energy
Energy from position or composition
Oxidation
Loss of electrons (LEO)
Precipitation reaction
An insoluble substance is formed as a result of the reaction
Molarity
moles / L
STP Conditions
0 degrees Celsius, 22.4 L
Solubility Rules Exceptions
Calcium, Barium, Strontium, Mercury, Silver, Lead (Sulfates) Mercury, Silver, Lead (Halogens)
Solubility Rules
Chlorates, Acetates, Sulfates, Halogens, Nitrates, Group IA
Charles's Law
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Law of conservation of mass
Mass is neither created nor destroyed
Strong Bases
All Group IA elements with OH- Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2,
Weak Electrolytes
Conduct currents very weakly
Pressure
force / area
Millikan
Oil Drop Experiment, determined mass and magnitude of the electron
Root mean square velocity
Average velocity of gas particles
Endpoint
Indicator changes color
Spectator ions
Ions that do not participate in the reaction
Redox reaction
Electrons are transferred
Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT
Filtration
Separating a solid from a liquid
Strong Acids
HF, HBr, HCl, HClO4, HI, HClO3, HNO3
Effusion
Gas into a vacuum
Strong Electrolytes
Good conductors, easily ionized
Bronsted-Lowry acid
Proton donor
Types of Chemical Reactions
Precipitation reactions, Acid-Base reactions, and Redox reactions
Diffusion
Mixing of gases
Lewis acid
Electron pair donor
Lewis base
Electron pair acceptor
Law of conservation of energy
Energy can be converted but never destroyed
Oxidizing agent
Causes oxidation (is often reduced)
Reducing agent
Causes reduction (is often oxidized)
Bronsted-Lowry base
Proton acceptor
Reduction
Gain of electrons (GER)
Dalton's law of partial pressures
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3...
Kinetic energy
Energy from motion
Graham's law of effusion
Equivalence point
Enough titrant added to analyte
KMT
Volume of individual particles is negligible Particles are in constant motion Particles exert no forces on each other Collisions of particles with container walls are cause of pressure from gas
Arrhenius acid
Produces H+ (H3O+) in water
JJ Thomson
Cathode Ray, discovered the electron
Chromatography
Separating substances through differences in rates
Section 2
(50 cards)
Calorimetry equation
q = mCAT
Hybridization of a trigonal planar shape?
sp2
Dual nature of light
Light acts as a wave and as particulate matter
Types of electromagnetic radiation (smallest to largest)
gamma, X-rays, UV, visible, IR, micro, radio
Dipolar or dipole moment
Has center of positive and center of negative charge
Endothermic
Energy into the system
First law of thermodynamics
The energy of the universe is constant
Electronegativity
Ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself
Number of nonbonding pairs in a bent shape?
1
Pauli exclusion principle
Electrons with the same spin cannot occupy the same space
Hybridization of a tetrahedral shape?
sp3
Energy of a photon equation
Planck's constant x speed of light / frequency
Heat capacity
heat absorbed / increase in temperature
Bond angle of a bent shape?
<120
Electron affinity
Energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom
Ionization energy trend
Increases across a period (electron shielding not complete), decreases down a group (more electron shielding)
Localized electron model parts
Lewis diagram, VSEPR model (geometry), type of atomic orbitals
Bond angle of a linear shape?
180
Standard enthalpy of formation
change in enthalpy with formation of one mole of compound from its elements
Change in enthalpy for reaction
sum of heat of formations of products - sum of heat of formations of reactions
Atomic radius trend
Decreases across a period (more effective nuclear charge), increases down a group (more electron shielding)
Bond angle of a trigonal planar shape?
120
Ionization energy
Energy required to remove a valence electron from an atom
Hund's rule
Different electrons to different orbitals, same spin
Lattice energy
Change in energy when separated gas ions form an ionic solid Equation: LE = k(Q1Q2 / r) k is proportionality constant, Q is charge of ions, r is shortest distance between centers of ions
Types of electromagnetic radiation (largest to smallest)
radio, micro, IR, visible, UV, X-rays, gamma
Hybridization of a linear shape?
sp
de Broglie's equation
Wavelength of a particle
Photoelectric effect
Effect occurring when electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when light strikes it
Lone pairs
Pairs of electrons localized
Localized electron model
Molecule is composed of atoms bound together by sharing pairs of electrons
Bond energy
Energy needed to break bond
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
We cannot know both the position and momentum of an electron (the more we know one, the less we know the other)
Enthalpy (delta H)
delta H = delta E + P(delta V)
Resonance
More than one valid Lewis structure
Exothermic
Energy out of the system
Covalent bonding
Electrons are shared by nuclei
Internal energy (delta E)
delta E = q + w
Hess's Law Rules
If a reaction is reversed, the sign of delta H is reversed delta H is proportional to the quantities of reactions and products
Number of bonds in a bent shape?
2
Frequency
number of cycles per second
Basic wave equation
speed of light = wavelength x frequency
Coulomb's law
Energy of interaction between a pair of ions
Number of bonds in a trigonal planar shape?
3
Diffraction
Light is scattered from points or lines
Number of bonds in a linear shape?
2
Hybridization of a bent shape?
sp2
Aufbau principle
Progressively add electrons to each sub level
Wavelength
distance between two peaks or troughs in a wave
Bond angle of a tetrahedral shape?
109.5
Section 3
(50 cards)
Bond angle of a T-shape?
<90
Hydrogen bond
Special type of dipole, hydrogen with N, F, or O atom
Bond angle of a trigonal pyramidal shape?
<109.5
Sigma bond
Bond between the s orbitals
Number of nonbonding pairs in a linear (2) shape?
3
Bond angle of a V shape?
<109.5
Nonpolar covalent bond
Equal sharing of electrons
Electronegativity differences
Nonpolar covalent (0-0.5), polar covalent (0.5-2.0), ionic (above 2.0)
Ionic bond
Transfer of electrons
Bond angle of a see-saw shape?
<120, <90
Number of nonbonding pair in a square planar shape?
2
Metallic bond
Delocalized electron
Hybridization of a T-shape?
sp3d
Alloy
Contains a mixture of elements and has metallic properties
Number of nonbonding pairs in a trigonal pyramidal shape?
1
Pi bond
Bond between the p orbitals
Hybridization of a V shape?
sp3
Number of bonds in a T-shape?
3
Hybridization of a trigonal bipyramidal shape?
sp3d
Number of bonds in a linear (2) shape?
2
Number of nonbonding pairs in a square pyramidal shape?
1
Vapor pressure
Pressure of vapor at equilibrium
Bond angle of an octahedron?
90
Number of bonds in a see-saw shape?
4
Hybridization of a square pyramidal shape?
sp3d2
Number of nonbonding pairs in a see-saw shape?
1
Hybridization of a trigonal pyramidal shape?
sp3
Number of bonds in a tetrahedral shape?
4
Number of nonbonding pairs in a T-shape?
2
Temperature and vapor pressure?
Vapor pressure increases significantly with temperature
Interstitial alloy
Small atoms in holes
Hybridization of a square planar shape?
sp3d2
Bond angle of a square planar shape?
90
Bond angle of a linear (2) shape?
180
Hybridization of a linear (2) shape?
sp3d
Polar covalent bond
Unequal sharing of electrons
Number of bonds in a square planar shape?
4
Number of a bonds in a V shape?
2
Bond angle of a square pyramidal shape?
<90
Hybridization of a see-saw shape?
sp3d
Number of bonds in a square pyramidal shape?
5
Number of nonbonding pairs in a V shape?
2
Bond angles of a trigonal bipyramidal shape?
120, 90
Substitutional alloy
Metal atoms replaced by metal atoms of same size
Number of bonds in an octahedron?
6
London dispersion forces
Between non polar molecules
Hybridization of an octahedron?
sp3d2
Number of bonds in a trigonal pyramidal shape?
3
Number of bonds in a trigonal bipyramidal shape?
5
IMFs and vapor pressure?
High IMFs --> low vapor pressure, Low IMFs --> high vapor pressure
Section 4
(50 cards)
Coagulation
Destruction of colloid by heating or adding electrolyte
Reaction rate
Change of concentration over time (Rate = delta [A] / delta t)
Zero order slope
Slope = -k
Positive deviation from Raoult's law
Less IMFs, more molecules escape, higher vapor pressure
Zero order rate law
Rate = k
Crystalline solids
Components organized in a lattice
Heat of solution
Enthalpy change formation of a solution, sum of enthalpy values from each step
Negative deviation from Raoult's law
More IMFs, lower vapor pressure
Second order integrated rate law
1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]0
Henry's Law
Amount of gas dissolved proportional to pressure of gas above solution
First order slope
Slope = -k
Second order half life
t1/2 = 1 / k[A]0
First order rate law
Rate = k[A]
Rate law
Rate depends on concentration
Raoult's Law
Nonvolatile solute simply dilutes the solvent
A + A + B --> products
Rate = k[A]2[B]
Critical pressure
Pressure required to produce liquefaction at the critical temperature
Critical temperature
Temperature above which vapor cannot be liquefied no matter the pressure
Tyndall effect
Scattering of light by particles
Negative delta H
Energy released
First order plot
ln[A] vs. t
Second order rate law
Rate = k[A]2
Sublimation
Solid directly to gas
Zero order plot
[A] vs. t
A + B --> products
Rate = k[A][B]
Integrated rate law
Concentrations depends on time
A + A --> products
Rate = k[A]2
A + B + C --> products
Rate = k[A][B][C]
Reaction mechanism
Series of steps
Surface area and rate
More surface area increases rate
Temperature and solubility
Increases solubility of solid, decreases solubility of gases
Pressure and solubility
Increases solubility of a gas
First order integrated rate law
ln[A] = - kt + ln[A]0
Zero order half life
t1/2 = [A]0 / 2k
Positive delta H
Energy absorbed
Second order plot
1/[A] vs. t
Second order slope
Slope = k
Heat of fusion
Enthalpy change which occurs at the melting point when a solid melts
Zero order integrated rate law
[A] = -kt + [A]0
Triple point
Where all three states exist
Colloid
Suspension of particles
A --> products
Rate = k[A]
Colligative properties
Freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, osmotic pressure
Phase diagram
Representation of phases of a substance
Amorphous solids
Components frozen in place with no arrangement
Catalyst
Increases rate of reaction but not consumed
Initial rate
Instantaneous rate after reaction begins
Critical point
Critical temperature and critical point
Temperature and rate
Higher temperature increases rate
First order half life
t1/2 = 0.693 / k
Section 5
(32 cards)