Section 1
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Glasser: five basic needs
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Section 1
(50 cards)
Glasser: five basic needs
1. survival 2. love and belonging* (most important) 3. power 4. freedom 5. fun
Countertransference
Circumstances in which a psychoanalyst develops personal feelings about a client because of perceived similarity of the client to significant people in the therapist's life.
teleological approach
Adler's approach that viewed behavior as being motivated largely by future goals.
Margaret Mahler
A psychologist who described early development using the separation-individuation process suggesting the process of separation of the child from the mother around 4-5 months is the origination point for many psychopathological issues.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage - eating, drinking, mouth activity (birth-1) 2. Anal Stage - Toilet Training (2-3 years) 3. Phallic Stage - Gender roles, Edipus Complex (4-5 years old) 4. Latency Stage - Social Interaction (6-12 years) 5. Genital Stage - Intimate Relationships (Puberty or Later)
Autoplastic Intervention
An intervention that changes the individual so that he is better able to function effectively within his environment
Repression (defense mechanism)
- Involuntary blocking of unpleasant feelings and experiences from ones awareness. EX: An accident victim can remember nothing about the accident
Gestalt therapy
Each person is capable of assuming personal responsibility for his thoughts, feelings, and actions. Done by: 1) Finding Closure 2) Whole is greater than sum of it's parts 3) understand behavior in context 4) Figure/Ground Experience
Treatment in Gestalt Therapy
Awareness is the primary curative factor in therapy, with awareness involving a full understanding of one's thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Freud vs. Jung
Freud emphasized the first six years of life on personality development. Jung views development as continuing throughout life and more interested in growth after mid 30s. Jung is also more interested in dreams and the interpretation of dreams.
Freud's Id, Ego, Superego
-terms to describe the 3 parts of the self and the basis of human behavior, which Freud saw as irrational - id=pleasure seeking instincts to find immediate gratification (present at birth) - ego= stop ID's urges to delay gratification - mediates conflicting demands of the ID and reality - superego=internalized voice of parental control based on previous rewards and consquences (age 4-5) - Unlike ego, it aims to permanently block ID's socially unacceptable impulses.
The Collective Unconscious (Jung)
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Jung's Analytical Psychotherapy
- goal is to rebridge the gap between the conscious and the personal and collective unconscious - therapy relies mostly on interpretations designed to help the client become aware of her inner world - utilizes dreams, transference, and countertransference - focuses on the here-and-now, only addressing past when it will help client understand the present
Kernberg
Object relations theorist who argues Borderline Personality Disorder is due to inadequate resolution of splitting between "good" and "bad" components.
Jung: Collective Unconscious
the memories shared by all members of the human species
Acculturation
According to Berry, it is described in four categories to reflect the person's adoption of his/her own culture and the culture dominant group - integration, assimilation separation, or marginalization.
Carl Rogers: person (client) centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic (understanding, not quite agreeing or relating) environment to facilitate clients' growth. Belief that all people have an innate "self actualizing tendency" that serves as the primary source of motivation toward positive growth. To reach one's goal the "self" must remain unified, organized and whole. Diagnoses not typically given because it places therapist in authoritarian role and disrupts process.
Personality Theory
A theory that attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Adler's Individual Psychology/Teleological Approach
We are motivated by our goals and social factors in life rather than by unconscious forces or past events.
Types of Psychodynamic Approaches:
Freudian Psychoanalysis (Defense Mechanisms, Analysis) Adler's Individual Psychology (Teleological Approach, Style of Life) Jung's Analytical Psychotherapy (Collective Unconscious, Archetypes, Individuation) Object Relation Theory Mahler's Separation/Individuation
Freud's Personality Theory
Freudian theory that attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Structural & Developmental Drives
Communication/Interaction Family Therapy
Jackson, Satir, Haley - Symmetrical communication = one upmandship & Complementary Communication = unequals emphasize their differences.
reaction formation (defense mechanism)
warding off an uncomfortable thought by overemphasizing its opposite
Freud's Developmental Theory
Emphasizes the sexual drives of a person's ID and suggests an individual's personality is formed during childhood as a result of 5 psychosexual stages of development.
Humanistic and Constructivist Psychotherapies
Person Centered Therapy Gestalt Therapy Existential Therapy Reality Therapy Person Construct Therapy
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
Goal of Reality Therapy
Help clients identify effective ways to satisfy their needs and create a "success identity". This is done by helping clients explore their needs and perceptions, evaluate behaviors, and develop a realistic plan of action.
Freud's Structural Theory
internal conflict between 3 interacting components of the mind - ID EGO & SUPEREGO ID = person's instincts EGO mediates conflicts between id and reality Superego develops at age 4 or 5 and blocks unacceptable instincts
object relations theory
the psychodynamic theory that views the desire for relationships as the key motivating force in human behavior
Adler: Style of Life
A person's unique way of compensating for inferiority to achieve superiority
Adler View of Maladaptive Behavior
Mental Disorders represent mistaken/unhealthy style of life characterized by maladaptive attempts to compensate for feelings of inferiority, a preoccupation with achieving personal power, and a lack of social interest.
Freudian Psychoanalysis
theoretical approach that seeks to explain behavior by looking at the deep unconscious forces inside the person and past experiences
Alloplastic Intervention
An intervention that makes changes in the environment so that it better accommodates the individual
Perls' Self & Self Image
(Gestalt Psych.) Personality consists of: Self: creative aspect that promotes inherent tendency for self actualization and live as an integrated person. Self Image: Darker side that hinders growth by imposing external standards.
Personal Construct Therapy (George Kelly)
Focuses on how the client sees the world and how a client perceives, interprets, or predicts events using personal constructs. The goal of therapy is develop missing constructs or replace maladaptive constructs. Kelly used "fixed role therapy" to help clients try out alternative constructs.
Adler healthy vs non-healthy person
believed that social interest was the main difference between healthy and non healthy people. Healthy: Optimistic, confident, and concern for others Unhealthy/mistaken: self centered, competitive, and striving for personal power
Reality therapy differs from traditional therapy b/c:
rejects medical model of mental illness focuses on CURRENT behaviors and beliefs views transference as detrimental stresses conscious processes emphasizes value judgements (right/wrong in daily life)
Roger's three facilitative conditions
Unconditional Positive Regard Genuineness Empathetic Understanding
Reality Therapy
William Glasser Reality or Control Theory assumes people are responsible for the choices they make and focuses on how people make those choices.
Adler's Individual Psychology
We are motivated by our goals in life rather than by unconscious forces. Stresses the unity of individual and the belief that behavior is goal directed.
Freud Therapeutic Techniques
Reduce pathological symptoms by bringing the unconscious into conscious awareness and integrating previously learned repressed material into the personality. Confront or work through dreams, free associations, resistances, and transferences to connect the unconscious thoughts to current behavior.
Freud's view of maladaptive behavior
Unconscious, unresolved conflict that occurred during childhood drives behavior. Example: Phobias are the result of displacement of anxiety onto an object
Adlerian Therapy
The emphasis is on joint responsibility, on mutually determining goals, on mutual trust and respect, and on equality. The focus is on identifying, exploring, and disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions within the person's lifestyle.
Black Racial Identity Development Model
Pre-encounter - racial identity = low salience Encounter - greater racial awareness and is interested in developing black identity Immersion/Emersion - move from strong black attitudes to anti-white attitudes Internalization - adopts afrocentric, biculturist orientation
Jung: Archetypes
persona, anima, animus, shadow
Adler's personality types
Inferiority Feelings Striving Superiority. Style of Life Social Interest
humanistic psychology
- To understand a person, one must understand the subjective experience - Focus on CURRENT behaviors - Belief in Potential and Self Determination - Egalitarian and Collaborative relationship with client and therapist
Gestalt Neurotic Boundary Disturbances
4 Disturbances between self and environment that interferes with a person's ability to his needs and maintain homeostasis: Introjection; or acceptance of concepts without fully understanding them Projection: of problems on others Retroflection; doing onto oneself that you want to do to others Confluence; or the absence between self and environment - leads to guilt, jealousy, and resentment
existential therapy
a form of therapy designed to help clients explore the meaning of existence and face the great questions of life, such as death, freedom, alienation, and loneliness. People are in a constant state of evolving, free to choose their own destinies. Patient's accept responsibility for changing their own lives.
working with american indian clients
consider the client's cultural identity, level of acculturation, and worldview; identify possible environmental contributors (e.g., discrimination, poverty, acculturation conflicts) to the client's presenting problems; be aware that American Indians often adhere to a collateral social system that incorporates the family, community, and tribe; recognize that cooperation, sharing, and generosity are important cultural values and that the interests of the family and tribe take priority over the interests of the individual; be aware that American Indians are likely to regard wellness as depending on the harmony of mind, body, and spirit and illness as the result of disharmony;f)(keep in mind that American Indians tend to place more emphasis on nonverbal than verbal communication, consider listening to be more important than talking, and view direct eye contact as a sign of disrespect and a firm handshake as a sign of aggression; and (g) foster a collaborative therapeutic relationship and build trust by demonstrating familiarity with and respect for the client's culture and admitting any lack of knowledge. A collaborative, problem-solving, client-centered approach that avoids highly directive techniques and incorporates American Indian values and traditional healers is usually preferred. LaFromboise, Trimble, and Mohatt (1990) recommend using network therapy, which helps empower clients to cope with life stresses by mobilizing relatives, friends, and tribal members to provide support and encouragement.
Section 2
(50 cards)
fMRI (functional MRI)
A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
Mammillary Bodies
Attached to hypothalamus and assists with declarative memories
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.
Mahler's View of Object Relations Theory
Normal autistic phase - First few weeks of life. The infant is detached and self-absorbed. Spends most of his/her time sleeping. Normal symbiotic phase - Lasts until about 5 months of age. The child is now aware of his/her mother but there is not a sense of individuality. The infant and the mother are one, and there is a barrier between them and the rest of the world. Separation-individuation phase - The arrival of this phase marks the end of the Normal Symbiotic Phase. Separation refers to the development of limits, the differentiation between the infant and the mother, whereas individuation refers to the development of the infant's ego, sense of identity, and cognitive abilities. Mahler explains how a child with the age of a few months breaks out of an "autistic shell" into the world with human connections.
Cerebellum
A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.
Casual Attributions
inferences that people draw about the cause of their own behavior. People with an optimistic explanatory style attribute the negative outcomes of their actions to external, unstable, and specific factors, while those with a pessimistic explanatory style attribute them to internal, stable, and global factors
Persuasion Communicator Factors
Communicators are more persuasive when they're attractive, likable, and credible. With regard to the credibility, the research has found that it's affected by the communicator's expertise and trustworthiness and that the communicator's intent is a determinant of trustworthiness (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). For example, communicators are perceived as more trustworthy when they're arguing against their own best interests and when their message is accidentally overheard.
Group attribution error (Hamill, Wilson, & Nisbett 1980)
occurs when people believe that an individual group member's beliefs, attitudes, and preferences are reflective of those of the group as a whole
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Located within Hypothalamus - Controls circadian rhythms (sleep wake cycle, body temp, hormone release)
Actor Observer Effect
attribute own behavior to situational factors and behavior of others to dispositional factors
Bandura's self-efficacy
our beliefs regarding how capable we are in performing and completing specific tasks and behaviors
Self Serving Bias (Ross & Sicoly 1979)
Attribute our own behaviors to internal factors when those behaviors have desirable outcomes, but to situational factors when they have undesirable outcomes.
Hypothalamus
Subcortical structure that regulates the body's homeostasis (heart rate, blood pressure, appetite, thirst)
Thalamus
Relay station for all sense except olfaction. Involved with memory. Damage to Thalamus is often produced by over alcohol consumption producing Korsakoff syndrome which causes amnesia.
Solution Focused Therapy
primarily focuses on the problem, not the person., Utilization- where counselor uses previous successes to motivate change Positive and self affirming, gets good results Client is viewed as the expert while therapist acts as a consultant who poses different questions to allow the client to recognize their own strengths.
Techniques of motivational interviewing
OARS Open-ended questions Affirmations Reflective listening Summaries
single-proton emission computed tomography (SPECT)
radiological technique that integrates computed tomography (CT) and a radioactive material (tracer) injected into the bloodstream to visualize blood flow to tissues and organs Easier to use, but produces less details
Damage to visual cortex
cortical blindness, visual agnosia, hallucinations
ultimate attribution error (pettigrew, 2001)
It occurs when the negative behaviors of members of one's own in-groups are attributed to situational factors while the negative behaviors of members of out-groups are consistently attributed to dispositional factors, and vice versa for positive behaviors. The ultimate attribution error has been used to explain the prejudice of members of a majority group toward members of minority groups.
Kelley's (1967) covariation model
Causal attributions are also addressed by Kelley's (1967) covariation model. It proposes that people make attributions about another person's behavior by considering three types of information: (a) Consensus: Would others do the same thing as the person in the same situation? If the answer is yes, there is high consensus; if no, there is low consensus. (b) Consistency: Does the person usually act this way in this type of situation? If the answer is yes, there is high consistency; if no, there is low consistency. (c) Distinctiveness: Does the person usually act differently in other types of situations? If the answer is yes, there is high distinctiveness; if no, there is low distinctiveness. According to this model, when consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are all high, people are likely to make an external attribution about another person's behavior. In contrast, when consensus is low, consistency is high, and distinctiveness is low, people are likely to make an internal attribution.
Group Attribution Error (Allison & Messick 1985)
occurs when people believe that the decision or conclusion drawn by a group reflects the decision or conclusion of each individual group member, even in the presence of information suggesting that the group decision was not unanimous.
contralateral neglect
Caused by damage to the non-dominant (right) hemisphere and involves inattention to one side of the body's visual field. i.e. only shaving left side of the face.
fundamental attribution error
(Ross, 1977) tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors and underestimate the role of situational factors when making attributions about the behaviors of other people.
motivational interviewing
Combines aspects of Roger's Client Centered Therapy and Bandura's Self Efficacy developed for clients who are ambivalent about change their behavior. First used as a treatment for alcohol addiction, but now used for quitting cigarettes, eating disorders, and pain management. Focus on the factors that impeded an individual's ability to change behavior.
Arcuate fascilicus
Connects Broca's to Wernicke's Part of speech-production pathway
CAT scan
Uses X-rays to obtain horizontal images of the brain. Costs less, produces images more quickly, no need to be motionless. Can be used with patients that have pacemakers or metal in their body.
goals of motivational interviewing
Enhance clients intrinsic motivation and resolve ambivalence to changing. Four principals of motivational interviewing include: express empathy develop discrepancies between current behavior and future goals roll with resistance support self efficacy
interpesonal therapy (IPT)
Brief Therapy developed by Klerman & Weissman as a treatment for depression, bi-polar, bulimia, and substance abuse. Combines elements of psychodynamic and CBT. Focuses on treating current social relationships and improving interpersonal relationships.
PET scan (positron emission tomography)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Six stages of Transtheoretical Model
pre-contemplation: denial for need to change contemplation: aware of need to change but won't take action for 6 months preparation: takes action to change in immediate future action: making public commitment to change and takes concrete steps to do so. maintenance: maintained change in behavior for at least 6 months termination: can resist temptation and no fear of relapse.
caudate nucleus
One of the basal ganglia; helps with voluntary movement
Hippocampus
Consolidates declarative memories and transferring declarative information from short term to long term memory. Also important in creating spatial memories. Damage to Hippocampus have trouble storing new memories (anterograde amnesia), but remember memories before damage occurs. Degeneration of cells in hippocampus leads to Alzheimer's
Temporal Lobe
Auditory Cortex - hearing. Wernicke's area - comprehending language - located in left hemisphere
Basil Ganglia
Includes caudate nucleus, putamen, globes pallid us. Subcortical structures that direct intentional movement; one structure is the striatum which is involved in the control of posture and movement Damage to Basal Ganglia linked to ADHD, schizophrenia, OCD, Huntington's, Tourettes, and Parkinson's
Occipitotemporal junction
Helps recognize the faces of familiar people.
Occipital Lobe
Processes visual information by combining images and through object recognition.
The Transtheoretical Model
Model of behavior change that identifies SIX distinct stages people go through in altering behavior patterns; also called the stages of change model
substantia nigra
Reward seeking behavior and motor control
Parietal Lobe
Somatosensory Cortex - Sense of Touch, temperature, pain. Sensory Association Cortex - integration of sensory information
Kelly's personal constructs
opposite dimensions of meaning (happy/sad, friendly/unfriendly, smart/dumb) to construe events that develop in infancy.
Solution Focused Brief Therapy Questions
Miracle Question Exception Question Scaling Question
Brief Therapies
therapeutic interventions that aim to achieve specific, measurable, and short-term goals; emphasize the client's present and future (rather than the past); and focus on personal strengths
Frontal Lobe
Prefrontal Cortex - Decision making & Planning - executive functioning, behavior inhibition - Damage to dorsolateral area produces dysexcutive syndrome. Damage to the orbitofrontal area produces disinhibited syndrome. Primary Motor Cortex - executes voluntary movements. Broca's Area (Left hemisphere) - Forming Speech
Gerstmann's Syndrome
A set of four deficits believed to be associated with damage to the left parietal lobe (acalculia, finger agnosia, agraphia, and left-right disorientation)
Amygdala
Controls emotional reactions (fear & anger) and attaches emotions to memories. Abnormalities in Amygdala can lead to depression, PTSD, and Anxiety Disorders
Broca's aphasia
Slow labored speech and relatively intact comprehension
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
conduction aphasia
effortless but incoherent speech and relatively intact comprehension
dispositional vs. situational attributions
-dispositional: assumes that the cause of a behavior or outcome is internal -situational: assigns the cause of a behavior or outcome to the environment or external conditions
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. 3D detailed images and does not produce radiation.
Section 3
(50 cards)
Minority Influence
an individual group member with a minority opinion will persuade the majority of group members who share an opposing opinion. a minority must rely on behavioral style and is most likely to persuade the majority when the minority consistently expresses his or her opinion without seeming to be too rigid or dogmatic. Moscovici also proposed that opinion change due to minority influence is more likely to lead to private acceptance of the opinion (conversion), while opinion change due to majority influence is more likely to lead to public acceptance (compliance).
Law of Attraction
interacting with people who have similar attitudes is reinforcing because it validates our views and produces good feelings
Social Comparison Theory
in uncertain situations, people often compare themselves to others to obtain information about their own abilities, feelings, and other attributes.
confirmation bias
tendency to seek and pay attention to information that confirms our attitudes and beliefs and ignore information that refutes them.
Informational Influence of Conformity
people conform to the judgments of others because they think others know more than they do.
anchoring and adjustment heuristic
estimate the frequency of an event or other value by beginning with a starting point and then making upward or downward adjustments. When negotiating the price of a used bicycle at a garage sale, for example, the seller's initial price is the starting point and determines the size of the purchaser's counteroffer.
gain-loss effect
attraction is maximized when the person's evaluation of us is initially negative, but then becomes positive
Health Belief Model
(Rosenstock, Strecher, & Becker, 1994) identifies beliefs, attitudes, and other factors that predict the likelihood that a person will engage in behavior that will reduce the risk for developing a disorder. There are several versions of this model, and the most recent versions include the following factors: (a) Perceived susceptibility refers to a person's perceptions about his/her likelihood of developing the disorder. (b) Perceived severity refers to the person's perceptions about the seriousness of the consequences of developing the disorder. (c) Perceived benefits are the person's beliefs about the likelihood that taking action will reduce his/her vulnerability to the disorder. (d) Perceived barriers are the person's beliefs about the material and psychological costs of taking action. (e) Self-efficacy is the person's confidence that he or she has the ability to take action. (f) Cues to action are factors that motivate the person to act (e.g., illness of a family member, advice from health providers, mass media campaigns). An implication of the health belief model is that a person's willingness to engage in health-related behavior can be increased by targeting these factors.
Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
(Gibbons & Gerard, 1995) has been used primarily to predict health-related risk behaviors and is based on the assumption that there are two paths to engaging in a behavior: a reasoned path and a social reaction path. The reasoned path is the result of a person's behavior intention (as predicted by the theory of planned behavior), while the social reaction path is the result of the person's willingness to engage in the behavior in particular circumstances. According to this theory, willingness depends on the person's perceived acceptability of the behavior which, in turn, is determined by the person's prototype (social image) of people who engage in the behavior. When the prototype is positive, a person is more willing to engage in the behavior in social situations that are conducive to that behavior, and vice versa. For example, adolescents who have a positive image of peers who are marijuana users will be more willing than those with a negative image to try marijuana at a party where some of their peers are smoking marijuana.
sleeper effect
delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message because over time, people tend to remember the message but forget its source.
Affiliation
the desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships" (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2016) evolutionary psychologists, believe affiliation is the result of natural selection - i.e., people with a strong desire for affiliation were most likely to survive and reproduce. Schachter concluded that "misery doesn't love any kind of company, it loves only miserable company"
Conformity to Group Norms: Asch (1951)
found that subjects also conformed to the norm even when the stimulus was unambiguous and it was obvious that the estimates made by group members were wrong
base rate fallacy
tendency to ignore or underuse base rate information (information about most people) and instead to be influenced by the distinctive features of the case being judged" (Baumeister & Bushman, 2013, p. 176). As an example, juries are more likely to be persuaded by anecdotal case histories than by probabilistic base-rate information (Kahneman & Tversky, 1973).
self-verification theory
(Swann, Pelham, & Krull, 1989). Predicts that, regardless of whether people have positive or negative self-concepts, they seek feedback from and prefer to spend time with others who confirm their self-concepts.
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (Baumeister & Bushman, 2013)
Theory of Planned Behavior
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005), the intention to perform a behavior is the best predictor of behavior, and a person's behavior intention is determined by three factors: the person's attitude toward the behavior, what the person thinks others believe he/she should do (subjective norms), and the person's confidence in his/her ability to perform the behavior (perceived behavior control).
Brehm and Brehm (1981)
people may respond to social influence with psychological reactance. It occurs when people feel that pressure to behave in a particular way threatens their personal freedom and they attempt to regain their freedom by, for example, doing the opposite of what has been requested or acting aggressively toward the person who made the request.
automatic cognitive processing
thinking that is non conscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless automatic cognitive processing can cause errors and biases that adversely affect decisions and judgments. These include: 1) confirmation bias 2) illusory correlation 3) base rate fallacy 4) false consensus effect 5) gambler's fallacy 6) counterfactual thinking 7) illusory control
counterfactual thinking
the tendency to imagine what might have happened but didn't and can involve imagining either better or worse outcomes. It's most likely to occur when the outcome is personally significant and it's relatively easy to imagine an alternative outcome (Kahneman & Miller, 1986; Roese & Hur, 1997).
McGuire's (1973) attitude inoculation hypothesis
an effective way to increase resistance to persuasion or reduce susceptibility to persuasion is to "immunize" people against attempts to change their attitudes. This involves providing them with weak arguments against their current attitudes along with counterarguments that refute those arguments before they're exposed to the persuasive message.
illusory control
illusion of control and occurs when people believe they can influence events that are outside their control. It has been used to explain superstitious behaviors that people believe will maximize their probability of success. I.E. blowing on dice before a roll
Conformity to Group Norms: Sherif (1935)
He used the autokinetic phenomenon (an optical illusion in which a stationary point of light seems to move in a dark room) and found that, when each subject was asked to estimate the light's movement alone, the estimates varied considerably. However, when a subject was asked to estimate the movement after hearing other subjects (confederates) give their estimates, the subjects conformed to the group norm.
elaboration likelihood model
Petty & Cacioppo, 1981) a persuasive message can be processed through a central or peripheral route. The central route involves thoughtful and careful evaluation of the message and is more likely to be used when a person perceives the message to be personally relevant, has the cognitive ability to process the information, and/or is in a neutral or bad mood. Attitude change induced via the central route depends on the strength of the argument presented in the message, and it's likely to be strong, enduring, and predictive of behavior. In contrast, the peripheral route involves an automatic evaluation of the message and is most likely to be used when a person perceives the message to be unimportant, does not have the cognitive ability to process the information, and/or is in a good mood. Attitude change induced via the peripheral route depends on peripheral cues (e.g., the credibility and attractiveness of the person delivering the message), and it's likely to be weak and temporary and not predictive of behavior.
foot in the door technique (compliance)
persuasive technique asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
representativeness heuristic
judgments about the frequency or likelihood of an event, we ignore base rates and other important information and focus, instead, on the extent to which the event resembles a prototype (typical case). For example, assume that you're asked to judge whether a woman is more likely to be a librarian or elementary school teacher after being told she's friendly but a little shy, tends to speak very softly, is a conservative dresser, and keeps her house very neat. Most likely, you'll say she's a librarian because of her personal characteristics even though there are fewer librarians than elementary school teachers in the population.
social facilitation
improved performance on easy or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
normative influence of conformity
occurs when people conform to the judgments of others to avoid their ridicule or rejection.
controlled cognitive processing
thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
Persuasion Recipient Factors
Recipients with moderate self-esteem were most susceptible to influence. Higher levels of susceptibility being associated with lower levels of intelligence. Studies investigating the impact of age have not produced consistent results, but adolescents/young adults and older adults being more easily persuaded than middle-aged adults (e.g., Visser & Krosnick, 1998).
Milgram Experiment 1974
obedience to authority; electrical shocks to incorrect answers; learners were paid actors. subjects obeyed the experimenter in his studies because the situation put them in an "agentic state," which he defined as "the condition a person is in when he sees himself as an agent for carrying out another person's wishes
generalized reciprocity
likers are more likable
principle of reciprocity
We like people who like us and vice versa.
Tuckman's Model of Group Development
1. Forming - group members are uncertain and rely on leader 2. Storming - Members feel part of the group and power struggles emerge between members 3. Norming - growth of group cohesion and attempts to resolve conflict 4. Performing - working efficiently to achieve group goals 5. Adjourning - recognizing accomplishments of individuals and choosing between new goals or disbandment.
social loafing
free rider effect and occurs when members of a group contribute less to the group's output than they would have done if working alone. For example, in one study, subjects were asked to make as much noise as possible by yelling and clapping, and the results indicated that subjects were louder when making noise alone than when making noise in a group (Latane, Williams, & Harkins, 1979). Social loafing is less likely to occur when a group is small and cohesive and when group members believe that the task is personally meaningful, they'll be punished for poor performance, their individual contributions are necessary for a successful outcome, and their individual contributions can be identified and evaluated (Karau & Williams, 1993).
self-perception theory
(Bem, 1972) proposes that people learn about themselves in the same way they learn about other people - i.e., by observing their behaviors and the circumstances in which those behaviors occur. Evidence for self-perception theory is provided by research on the overjustification effect which predicts that, when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behavior, their intrinsic motivation decreases.
door-in-the-face technique (compliance)
persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we're hoping to have granted
Social Judgement Theory
Sherif & Hovland, 1961) is based on the assumption that the effectiveness of a persuasive message depends on a person's current position on an issue, and it distinguishes between three "latitudes" that represent different degrees of similarity between the person's position and the position advocated by the message: The latitude of acceptance consists of positions the person finds acceptable because they're similar to his/her own position. The latitude of rejection consists of positions the person finds unacceptable because they're extremely different from his/her position. And the latitude of noncommitment consists of positions the person will not automatically accept or reject but will consider because they're moderately different from his/her position. This theory also assumes that the size of the latitudes is affected by the person's ego-involvement with the issue addressed by the message: As the person's level of ego-involvement increases, the latitudes of acceptance and noncommitment become smaller and the latitude of rejection becomes larger.
illusory correlation
overestimate the relationship between two variables that are not related or are only slightly related. An example is the tendency to overestimate the frequency of behaviors that are consistent with negative stereotypes of members of certain minority groups (Hamilton & Gifford, 1976).
availability heuristic
judgments are based on the frequency or likelihood of an event on how easy it is to recall relevant examples of the event. For instance, people tend to overestimate the frequency of deaths due to shark attacks and plane crashes because, even though they're actually uncommon, they're highly memorable.
psychological reactance
occurs when people feel that pressure to behave in a particular way threatens their personal freedom and they respond in ways that help them regain their sense of freedom
Persuasion Message Factors
Message discrepancy, presentation order and timing, and fear arousal are three message factors that affect the persuasiveness of a message. In general, the relationship between amount of attitude change and message discrepancy has an inverted-U shape, with the greatest amount of change being elicited when there's a moderate discrepancy between the recipient's current position and the position advocated by the message (Aronson, Turner, & Carlsmith. 1963).
pratfall effect
the attractiveness of a person who is perceived to be competent increases when that person commits a blunder, while the attractiveness of a person who is perceived to be mediocre decreases when he or she commits a blunder. According to these investigators, the positive effect of a blunder for competent people occurs because it humanizes them.
Deindividuation
The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior" (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2016, p. 321). It occurs when people can act anonymously because they're in a large crowd or their identities are disguised. For example, Mann (1981) found that, when crowds gathered when someone was threatening to jump off a bridge or building, the crowd was more likely to taunt and urge the person to jump when it was night and the crowd was large than when it was day and the crowd was small.
The Gambler's Fallacy
a particular chance event is affected by previous events and that chance events will 'even out' in the short run" (Baumeister & Bushman, 2013, p. 178). i.e. new odds on roulette wheel based on previous spins
Five Types of Task Performance
Additive - final output is the sum of the contributions of each group member. Compensatory - group's output is the average of each member's estimate, judgment, or other input. On this type of task, group performance is usually better than the performance of any individual member. Disjunctive - A group's performance on a disjunctive task is equal to or less than the performance of the best group member. Conjunctive - performance of the entire group (e.g., the group's ability to meet a deadline or a team's time to finish a relay race) is limited by the contribution of the least capable member. Discretionary - group's performance depends on how the contributions are combined.
balance theory
also known as P-O-X theory because it focuses on the relationships among three elements: the person (P), another person (O), and an attitude object or event (X).
false consensus effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions, values, and beliefs and has been found to affect judgments in a variety of situations. In one study, students were told they had either passed or failed a bogus social sensitivity test. When asked to estimate how other students would do, those who were told they had failed said most other students would fail the test and those who were told they had passed said most other students would pass (Alicke & Largo, 1995).
heuristic persuasion
mental shortcuts that provide quick estimates about the likelihood of uncertain events (Baumeister & Bushman, 2013). They can lead to inaccurate conclusions.
social inhibition
The tendency to perform complex or difficult tasks more poorly in the presence of others
cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger's (1954) proposedwhen people have inconsistencies between two attitudes or between an attitude and behavior, they experience a state of mental discomfort that they're motivated to relieve by changing an attitude or behavior. i.e. Lola's prom dates.
Section 4
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social identity theory
people have a natural tendency to categorize people into groups, identify with one or more groups, and favor "in-groups". Feeling positively toward an in-group increases a group member's self-esteem, but it can also lead to prejudice and discrimination against members of out-groups
diffusion of responsibility
reduced sense of personal responsibility due to the belief that others are willing and able to provide assistance, and it increases as the number of bystanders increases.
Egalitarianism
A belief in the equality of all people
dyadic reciprocity
If a participant uniquely desired a particular partner (selective desire), that partner reciprocated that liking. tends to be stronger than the correlation for generalized reciprocity.
double bind communication
a person receives two contradictory messages from a family member and is not allowed to comment on the contradiction
overt racism
openly hostile and aggressive attitudes toward and blatant acts of discrimination against members of racial minority groups.
Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula
used to correct reliability coefficients resulting from the split-half method determine the effects of lengthening or shortening a test on its reliability coefficient.
covert racism
a form of racial discrimination that is disguised and subtle, rather than public or obvious outbursts
Transtheoretical Model Factors:
a person's motivation to change is affected by three factors - decisional balance, self-efficacy, and temptation.
Bateson 1972
Family Therapist - linked the development of schizophrenia to double-bind communication
Transtheoretical Model
(Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983) strategies are most effective when they match the person's stage of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, termination
Scapegoat theory
prejudice occurs because members of prominent groups blame against weaker target groups for societal problems. used to explain why frustrating socioeconomic conditions (e.g., high rates of unemployment and inflation) can cause members of the majority group to discriminate against members of minority groups.
Item Response Theory (IRT)
A theory that relates the performance of each item to a statistical estimate of the test taker's ability on the construct being measured
aversive racism
characterized by a belief in egalitarianism. However, it's accompanied by a non-prejudiced self-image and negative, often unconscious feelings about minority group members that were acquired early in life.
pluralistic ignorance
a misperception of how others are thinking or feeling: person concludes that the inactivity of other bystanders is due to the fact that they know the situation does not constitute an emergency.
ambivalent racism
individuals respond in more extreme ways to situations involving a minority group member than they do to similar situations involving a majority group member, and their response can be either positive or negative depending on the nature of the situation.
Emotion-in-Relationship Model
strong emotions are elicited in close relationships when a partner engages in an unexpected behavior. When the interruption has a desirable outcome, it elicits a positive emotional reaction; when it has an undesirable outcome, it elicits a negative emotional reaction.
Item Characteristic Curve (ICC)
The line that results when we graph the probability of answering an item correctly with the level of ability on the construct being measured; the resulting graph provides a picture of both the item's difficulty and discrimination. (a) Difficulty level is indicated by the percent of low-, average-, and high-ability examinees who answered the item correctly. (b) Discrimination is indicated by the slope of the ICC: the steeper the slope, the better the discrimination. (c) Probability of guessing correctly is indicated by the point at which the ICC crosses the y-axis: The closer this point is to 0, the more difficult it is for examinees to choose the correct answer to the item just by guessing.
reliability coefficient
range from 0 to 1.0 and are designated with the letter "r" that has a subscript containing two of the same letters or numbers (e.g., "xx"). interpreted directly as the amount of variability in obtained test scores that's due to true score variability. For instance, if a test has a reliability coefficient of .80, this means that 80% of variability in obtained test scores is due to true score variability and the remaining 20% is due to measurement error. reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered minimally acceptable for many tests, coefficients of .90 are usually required for high-stakes tests that will be used to select employees, assign diagnoses, or make other important decisions about individuals (e.g., Kline, 2005).
measurement error
random factors that affect the test performance of examinees in unpredictable ways and include distractions during testing, ambiguously worded test items, and examinee fatigue.
Solution Focused Therapy
(Shazer 1991) Brief Therapy with Focus on FUTURE goals and personal strengths and resources that will help them achieve goal. Uses miracle and exception questions.
standard error of measurement
used to construct a confidence interval, and it's calculated by multiplying the test's standard deviation times the square root of 1 minus the reliability coefficient. For instance, if a test has a standard deviation of 5 and a reliability coefficient of .84, its standard error of measurement equals 5 times the square root of 1 minus .84: 1 minus .84 is .16, the square root of .16 is .4, and 5 times .4 is 2. In other words, when a test's standard deviation is 5 and its reliability coefficient is .84, its standard error of measurement is 2.
empathy-altruism hypothesis
people help another person because they are concerned about their well-being. altruistic reasons rather than egoistic reasons is more likely to lead to sustained helping
True Score Variability
actual differences among examinees with regard to whatever the test is measuring. It's assumed to be consistent, which means that an examinee's true score will be the same regardless of which form of the test he or she takes or who scores the test.
item analysis
used to determine which items to include in the test and involves determining each item's difficulty level and ability to discriminate between examinees who obtain high and low total test scores.
Sherif's Robbers Cave study (1966)
evaluated several strategies for reducing intergroup conflict and found that having members of hostile groups work together on superordinate goals was most effective.
factors that effect reliability coefficient
1) Content Homogeneity 2) Range of Scores 3) Guessing
internal consistency reliability
Internal consistency reliability provides information on the consistency of scores over different test items and is useful for tests that are designed to measure a single content domain or aspect of behavior. Not useful for speed/fluency tests
alternate forms reliability
provides information about the consistency of scores over different forms of the test and, when the second form is administered at a later time, the consistency of scores over time.
Precontemplation stage of Transtheoretical Model
State of denial with no intention of taking action to change their behaviors in the next six months
realistic conflict theory
discrimination is the result direct competition between different groups for scarce resources.
test-retest reliability
a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions
authoritarian personality theory
the view that people with an authoritarian type of personality are more likely to be prejudiced than those who have other personality types
symbolic racism
A tendency to express negative biases held about a racial outgroup not at the group directly, but at social policies seen as benefiting that group. (i.e. whites hating affirmative actions)
Hess Stereotype Threat (2003)
performance of older adults (but not younger adults) on a memory task decreased from baseline after they read a news article that confirmed the stereotype of age-related memory decline but did not decrease after reading a news article that refuted the stereotype.
negative state relief model
people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness
Kuder-Richardson 20
a formula used to check consistency across items of an instrument with right/wrong responses
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
Miller & Rollnick 2002: brief therapy - interventions match the client's stage of change. Expressing empathy, supporting self-efficacy, developing a discrepancy, and rolling with resistance. Uses questions, reflections, affirmations, and other strategies for "change talk"
interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
Klerman & Weissman (1984) Brief Treatment that settles role disputes - Effective for Depression. 3 phases: Initial: Diagnosis/Symptoms - "sick role" Middle: Address Problems via role play, communication/decision analysis Final: termination and relapse prevention
Miracle Questioning
Used in Solution-focused therapy to help establish the focus of treatment as the future (rather than the past or present) and identify treatment goals.
Coefficient alpha (Cronbach's alpha)
A reliability index that estimates the inter item consistency of a measure
Assessing test reliability
test retest, alternate forms, internal consistency, and inter-rater
Optimal Difficulty Level
the optimal p value lies halfway between 1.0 and the probability that the item can be answered correctly by guessing. For instance, the chance of choosing the correct answer to a four-answer multiple-choice question by guessing is .25, and the optimal difficulty level for this type of item is calculated by adding 1.0 to .25 and dividing the result by 2: (1.0 + .25)/2 = 1.25/2 = .625.
inter-rater reliability
provides information on the consistency of scores over different raters and is important for tests that are subjectively scored. Cohen's kappa coefficient and Kendall's coefficient of concordance are two methods used to evaluate inter-rater reliability: The kappa coefficient is used to assess the consistency of ratings assigned by TWO raters when ratings represent a nominal scale. The coefficient of concordance is used to assess the consistency of ratings assigned by THREE or more raters when ratings represent ranks.
split-half reliability
dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are A problem with this method is that it essentially involves calculating a reliability coefficient for two forms of the test that are half as long as the original test, and shorter tests tend to be less reliable than longer ones.
confidence interval
indicates the range within which an examinee's true score is likely to be given his or her obtained score.
constructing a confidence interval
68%: add and subtract ONE standard error of measurement to and from the obtained score 95%: add and subtract TWO standard errors of measurement 99%: add and subtract THREE standard errors of measurement
item difficulty (p)
indicates the percentage of examinees who answered the item correctly. It's calculated by dividing the number of examinees who answered the item correctly by the total number of examinees. As an example, when 50 of 100 examinees answered an item correctly, the item's p value is 50/100, or .50.
Consensual observer drift
occurs when two or more raters communicate with each other while assigning ratings, which results in increased consistency (but often decreased accuracy) in ratings and an overestimate of inter-rater reliability. Not having raters work together, providing raters with adequate training, and regularly monitoring the accuracy of raters' ratings are ways to eliminate or reduce this occurrence.
Allport's contact hypothesis
proposes that contact between members of majority and minority groups is most effective for reducing prejudice and discrimination when (a) members of the groups have equal status; (b) members must work together to achieve common (superordinate) goals; (c) there is no competition between members; and (d) the contact is sanctioned by law, custom, or institutional authorities.
Section 5
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Strategic Family Therapy (Haley)
power and control are determined primarily by hierarchies within a family and that maladaptive family functioning is often related to unclear or inappropriate hierarchies.
Socratic Dialogue (CBT)
asking questions that are designed to clarify the client's problems, identify the thoughts and assumptions, and evaluate the consequences of maintaining maladaptive thoughts and assumptions.
Formative Phases of Group Therapy (Yalom 2005)
1) initial orientation, hesitant participation, search for meaning, and dependency stage - looking for group's purpose 2) conflict, dominance, and rebellion stage - members compete for power 3) development of cohesiveness stage - members begin to trust each other and the therapist
unbalancing (Structural family counseling)
a technique used to better establish a proper family hierarchy. Therapists aligns self with the person who needs the most power.
Best forms of family therapy
Sexton 2011: based on both science and the accumulated clinical knowledge of experienced practitioners in order to most accurately identify both the efficacy (reliability) and utility (contextual efficacy) of the clinical procedure
selective abstraction
exaggerating a minor negative detail of a situation while ignoring other aspects
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members Problems occur in families when interactions between family members are exclusively symmetrical or complementary.
negative feedback loop (cybernetic theory)
change and help a system restore or maintain stability when its stability is disrupted by an internal or external event.
collaborative empiricism (CBT)
collaborative therapeutic alliance between the therapist and client in which they become coinvestigators as they examine the evidence to accept, support, reevaluate, or reject the client's thoughts, assumptions, intentions, and beliefs
boundary making (structural)
alter degrees of proximity between family members
Differentiation (Bowen Family Therapy)
intrapersonal aspect distinguishes between own feelings and thoughts. Interpersonal aspect: Separate own functioning from the functioning of others. A person with a low level of differentiation becomes "emotionally fused" with other family members.
Multigenerational Transmission Process
transmission of emotional immaturity from one generation to the next. Most likely to occur in least differentiated family member.
Joining (Structural Family Therapy)
Mimesis: adopting the family's affective, behavioral, and communication style Tracking: adopting the content of the family's communications Maintenance: entails providing family members with support
dysfunctional thought record (BECK)
client records the event that led to an unpleasant emotion, automatic thoughts that preceded the emotion, the type of emotion and its intensity on a scale from 0 to 100, an alternative rational response to the automatic thought, and the outcome
Minuchin's coalitions
stable: parent and child team up against other parts Unstable: triangulation where bother parents want child to side with them detouring attack: parents avoid conflict by blaming child detouring support: avoid conflict by overprotecting child
Reframing (Structural Family Therapy)
relabeling a problematic behavior so it can be viewed in a more constructive way
rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Ellis
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions irrational beliefs tend to be "absolute (or dogmatic) and are expressed in the form of 'must's,' 'should's,' 'ought's,' 'have to's,' etc. ... and lead to negative emotions that largely interfere with goal pursuit and attainment
inclusion and exclusion considerations group therapy
Group therapy is most effective for individuals who are "highly motivated, active, psychologically minded and self-reflective ..., [who seize] opportunities for self-disclosure within the group ..., [and who have an adequate] capacity for interpersonal relationships not good for people experiencing suicidal ideation, delusions, or can't control aggressive impulses. Not good for antisocial personality disorder.
group cohesiveness (Yalom 2005)
strongest predictor of positive group therapy outcomes.
Beck's CBT
originally developed for depression, but now used for many disorders psychological disturbance is due largely to maladaptive cognitive schemas, automatic thoughts, and cognitive distortions
Structural Family Therapy (Minuchin)
maladaptive behaviors are due to a dysfunctional family structure. Goals: alleviate current symptoms and restructure the family. Method: Joining, Family Mapping, Reframing, Unbalancing, Boundary Making & Enactment
Family Mapping - Structural Family Therapy
Diagram used to identify boundaries, structures, and relationships within the family system.
Goals of Strategic Family Therapy (Haley)
alter family interactions that are maintaining its symptoms. therapists assume an active role and use a variety of strategies that are aimed at changing behavior
Structural Family Therapy
Minuchin family therapy in which the therapist infers the maladaptive relationships among family members from their behavior and attempts to help the family restructure these relationships for more-desirable interactions. Hierarchy, alignment and boundaries are challenged to minimize enmeshment and disengaging.
Emotional Triangles (Bowen)
husband and wife reduce the conflict between them by becoming overinvolved with one of their children. Increases as the levels of differentiation of family members decrease.
Ellis' REBT (ABC model)
A is an activating event, B is the client's irrational belief about that event, C is the emotional or behavioral consequence of that belief, D is the therapist's use of techniques that dispute the client's irrational belief, and E is the effect of these techniques, which is the replacement of the irrational belief with a more rational one.
automatic thoughts
Thoughts that occur spontaneously; often used to describe problematic thoughts that maintain mental disorders.
Complementary interaction
reflect inequality and occur when the behavior of one person complements the behavior of the other person. A common complementary pattern is for one person to assume a dominant role, while the other assumes a subordinate role
negative automatic thoughts
thoughts are a distortion of reality, emotional distress, and/or interference with the pursuit of life goals and can contribute to psychological distress
arbitrary inference
drawing negative conclusions without any supporting evidence
Extended Family Systems Therapy
Bowen - intergenerational and transgenerational family therapy transmission of certain emotional processes from one generation to the next is responsible for the development of schizophrenia in a family member.
Goals of CBT
correct faulty information processing and to help patients modify assumptions that maintain maladaptive behaviors and emotions Cognitive techniques include redefining the problem, reattribution, and decatastrophizing; behavioral techniques include activity scheduling, behavioral rehearsal, and exposure therapy
enactment (Structural family counseling)
a deliberate process by which the counselor encourages the family to play out its problems in the session and encourage family members to act differently.
cognitive schema (beck)
core beliefs, develop during childhood as the result of experience and biological reactivity to stress. Revealed in Automatic Thoughts different disorders are associated with different maladaptive schemas, AKA cognitive profiles
emotional reasoning
reliance on one's emotional state to draw conclusions about oneself, others, and situations.
dichotomous thinking
classifying events as one of two extremes - for example, as a success or a failure. Black & White thinking
Goals of Narrative Family Therapy
replace problem-saturated stories with alternative stories that have preferred outcomes narrative family therapist assumes the role of collaborator and uses questions and other techniques to help family members identify current stories and construct alternative ones Therapeutic certificates are given to family members toward the end of therapy to acknowledge their accomplishments.
Practitioners of REBT use
active disputation of irrational beliefs, rational-emotive imagery, systematic desensitization, and skills training. REBT is an effective treatment for depression, anxiety, conduct problems, anger, and several other disorders and conditions (e.g., DiGiuseppe, 2010).
circular questioning (Milan)
asking each family member the same question to identify differences in perceptions about events and relationships and uncover family communication patterns
Ordeal (Therapy)
therapists task is to impose an unpleasant task more severe than the problem behavior targeted for change
Brief Family Therapy
A model of problem-focused and time-limited therapy developed by Milton Erickson and others.
symmetrical interaction
effect equality and occur when the behavior of one person elicits a similar type of behavior from the other person Can become a "One upmanship game"
Milan Systemic Family Therapy
family as a whole protects itself from change through homeostatic rules and patterns of communication" (Browning & Green, 2003, p. 69). goal of therapy is to alter the family rules and communication patterns that are maintaining dirty "family games"
Stages of Strategic Family Therapy (Haley)
Social: therapist welcomes family and observes interactions Problem: therapist elicits each family member's view of problem and its causes Interactional: members discuss different views of problem, & therapist observes how members interact when addressing the problem Goal Setting: therapist helps family members agree on a definition of the family's problem and concrete therapy goals
Extended Family Systems Therapy (Bowen)
Goal is differentiation of self in all family members, work with most differentiated family system is the result of a multigenerational transmission process genogram
family projection process (Bowen)
parents' projection of their emotional immaturity onto their children, which causes the children to have lower levels of differentiation.
Unique Outcome NARRATIVE
event which is overlooked bc it does not fit the dominant story theme, but is used by therapist to bring out the alternative story.
Personalization
one's actions caused an external event without evidence for that conclusion.
cognitive distortions
errors in reasoning that affect thinking when a stressful situation triggers a dysfunctional schema and affects the content of automatic thoughts. Common distortions include arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, dichotomous thinking, personalization, and emotional reasoning
Narrative Family Therapy
White and Epston. Narritive metaphor focuses on self-defeating cognitions. consider alternative ways of looking at their problems assume that the problem - not the person - is the problem
Section 6
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Utilization of Mental Health Care Services:
Highest among women 35-49 Sexual minority men and women utilize mental health care services at higher rates than heterosexual men and women Outpatient services: two races or white Inpatient services: American Indian/Alaskan
cost-benefit analysis
a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public good
Howard et al (1996) Phase Model of Therapy Outcomes
Remoralization: first few sessions/increase in hopefulness Remediation: next 16 sessions/reduction in symptoms Rehabilitation: unlearning troublesome, maladaptive, habitual behaviors and establishing new ways of dealing with various aspects of life
Luborsky 1954
Challenged Eysenck because patients were not randomly assigned to groups and, consequently, initial differences in patient characteristics could account for at least some of the differences in recovery rates.
Cost-effectiveness analysis
a type of evaluation research that compares program costs with actual program outcomes - used when benefits cannot be expressed monetarily
Last Stage of any racial or cultural identify model
person's acceptance and appreciation of his/her culture
Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
used to help people cope with stress, pain, and illness and consists of an eight-session group program that focuses on teaching participants several mindfulness meditation practices including awareness of breathing, yoga, and sitting and walking meditation.
Caplan's Model of Prevention
Primary Prevention Secondary Prevention Tertiary Prevention
Consultee-centered case consultation
A type of mental health consultation that focuses on helping the consultee enhance the skills he or she will need to deal effectively with future cases.
Mindfulness
moment-to-moment awareness of one's experience without judgment
Resistance and emersion
positive attitudes toward members of their own minority group, conflicting attitudes toward members of other minority groups, and negative attitudes toward members of the majority group unlikely to seek therapy because of their suspiciousness of mental health services
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
(Boorman, Morris, & Oliver, 2017) Main goal is to increase psychological flexibility and psychological inflexibility causes problems by a rigid dominance of psychological reactions over chosen values
Eysenck's (1952)
Argued that psychotherapy was counterproductive in patients b/c of recovery rates in no treatment group. Reported better results in spontaneous remission groups. 44% of patients who participated in psychoanalytic psychotherapy, 64% of patients who participated in eclectic psychotherapy, and 72% of patients who did not participate in psychotherapy experienced an improvement in symptoms.
Khoury and his colleagues (2013)
Concluded that mindfulness therapies are effective for treating both psychological disorders and physical/medical conditions but are more effective for psychological disorders, especially depression, anxiety, and stress. There's no clear consensus about the mechanisms that are responsible for the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions.
Gordon's Selective Prevention
aimed at individuals who have been identified as being at increased risk for a disorder due to their biological, psychological, or social characteristics. i.e. - drug abuse prevention program for adolescents whose parents have a substance use disorder
Cost Utility Analysis (CUA)
Cost and outcome Outcome is measured as quality of life years (QALY) - "patient's well-being" or QALY
Consultee-centered administrative consultation
improving the professional functioning of program administrators so they're better able to develop, administer, and evaluate mental health programs in the future.
The Institute of Medicine (Mrazek & Haggerty, 1996)
expanded Gordon's model to create a continuum of care model that includes prevention, treatment, and maintenance. Restricted to people who have not received a diagnosis of a mental or physical disorder.
Helm's White Racial Identity Development Model
consists of two phases - abandonment of racism and defining a nonracist White identity 1. Contact: lack of awareness of racism and satisfaction with the racial status quo. IPS: obliviousness. 2. Disintegration: aware of contradictions that create race-related moral dilemmas - These dilemmas cause confusion and anxiety. IPS: suppression and ambivalence. 3. Reintegration: attempted to resolve the dilemmas of the previous status by believing that Whites are superior to minority group members and blaming minority group members for their own problems. IPS: selective perception and negative out-group distortion. 4. Pseudo-Independence: question their beliefs about Whites and members of minority groups. It's characterized by a superficial tolerance of minority group members that may be accompanied by paternalistic attitudes and behaviors that perpetuate racism. IPS: reshaping reality and selective perception. 5. Immersion-Emersion: search for a personal meaning of racism and an understanding of what it means to be White and to benefit from White privilege. IPS: hypervigilance and reshaping. 6. Autonomy: develop a nonracist White identity, value diversity, and can explore issues related to race and racism without defensiveness. IPS: flexibility and complexity.
Smith, Glass, and Miller
using a meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies, psychotherapy clients were better off than 80% of the untreated individuals who need therapy.
First stage of any racial or cultural identity model
lack of acceptance and/or awareness of his/her culture as an element of his/her identity.
Racial/Cultural Identity Model (Atkinson, Morten, and Sue 1998)
five stages of identity development that differ in terms of how members of racial and cultural minority groups view members of their own minority group, other minority groups, and the majority group.
Black Racial Identity Development Model
Pre-encounter stage: assimilation, miseducation, and self-hatred subtypes. Immersion-emersion stage: Black involvement and anti-White subtypes. Internalization stage: Black nationalist, biculturalist, and multiculturalist subtypes.
Cross' Black Racial Identity Development Model
Distinguished between five stages: 1. Pre-Encounter: idealize and prefer White culture. They have negative attitudes toward their own Black culture and may view it as an obstacle and source of stigma. 2. Encounter: question their views of White and Black cultures as the result of exposure to events that cause them to become aware of the impact of racism on their lives. These individuals are interested in learning about and becoming connected to their own culture. 3. Immersion-Emersion: reject White culture and become immersed in their own culture. 4. Internalization: defensiveness and emotional intensity related to race decrease. People in this stage have a positive Black identity and tolerate or respect racial and cultural differences. 5. Internalization-Commitment: People in this stage have internalized a Black identity and are committed to social activism to reduce all forms of oppression.
Knapp et al. (2013)
individual placement and support (IPS) produced a greater net benefit IPS was found to be more effective than vocational rehabilitation
Gordon's Model of Prevention
Universal Selective Indicated
Gordon's Universal Preventions
aimed at entire groups that are not restricted to individuals who are at risk for a disorder. i.e. - drug abuse prevention program for all high school students in a school district
Introspection
people question their unequivocal allegiance to their own group and rigid rejection of the majority group. prefer a therapist from their own minority group but are willing to consider a therapist from another group who understands their worldview, and they're interested in exploring their new sense of identity.
Caplan's "primary prevention"
aims to reduce the occurrence of new cases of a mental or physical disorders in an entire group of people public education program about depression and suicide, a school-based program for fifth graders to prepare them for the transition to middle school, and prenatal care for low-income mothers.
The dosage model
50% of therapy clients can be expected to exhibit a clinically significant improvement in symptoms by six to eight sessions, 75% by 26 sessions, and 85% by 52 sessions.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy uses
Interventions include metaphors, mindfulness strategies, and experiential exercises. Used as an evidence-based treatment for a number of conditions including chronic pain, psychosis, depression, anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Caplan's "secondary prevention"
reduce disorders in the population through early detection and intervention. aimed at INDIVIDUALS who have been identified as being at elevated risk for the disorder. i.e. tutoring struggling students or taking a depression screener for at risk person, training teachers to recognize early signs of behavior disorders
Program-centered administrative consultation
provide administrators with recommendations for dealing with the problems they've encountered in developing, administering, and/or evaluating the program.
Consultation vs. Collaboration
consultant has little or no direct contact with a consultee's client and is not responsible for the client's outcomes. collaborator usually has direct contact with the client and shares responsibility for the client's outcomes.
Processes of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
Experiential acceptance: embrace of private experiences without unnecessary attempts to change them Cognitive defusion: distance oneself from one's thoughts and feelings and view them as experiences rather than reality Being Present: being in contact with whatever is happening in the present moment. Awareness of Self: view oneself as the context in which one's thoughts and feelings occur rather than as the thoughts and feelings themselves. Value Based Actions: use one's freely chosen values to guide one's behaviors committed action: act in ways consistent with one's values in the future, even when faced with obstacles
Caplan's Tertiary Prevention
target people who have already received a diagnosis of a mental or physical disorder and include relapse prevention and rehabilitation programs. i.e. halfway houses, and Alcoholics Anonymous
Integrative Awareness
aware of the positive and negative aspects of all cultural groups. They're secure in their cultural identity and are committed to eliminating all forms of oppression and becoming more multicultural. Their preference for a therapist is based on similarity of worldview, and they're most interested in strategies aimed at community and societal change.
stress inoculation training (SIT)
(Meichenbaum, 1996) clients deal better with ongoing and future stressful situations by teaching them effective coping skills. Three phases: 1) conceptualization/education phase - information about stress and its effects and are encouraged to view stressful situations as "problems-to-be-solved" 2) skills acquisition and consolidation phase - clients learn cognitive and behavioral coping skills which may include relaxation, self-instruction, and problem-solving. 3) application and follow-through phase - clients use newly acquired coping skills, first in imagined and role-playing situations and then in real life situations.
Conformity
neutral or negative attitudes toward own minority group and other minority groups. positive attitudes toward members of the majority group. accept negative stereotypes of their own group and consider the values and standards of the majority group to be superior. prefer a therapist from the majority group and are not interested in exploring their cultural identity.
Chiles, Lambert, and Hatch's (1999)
Found that psychological treatment reduced overall medical costs in 90% of studies
self-instructional training (Meichenbaum, 1977)
A type of cognitive behavior modification procedure in which the client learns to make specific self-statements that increase the likelihood that a target behavior will occur in a specific situation.
Dissonance
question attitudes toward members of all groups. aware of the effects of racism and interested in learning about their own culture. prefer a therapist from the majority group but want the therapist to be familiar with their culture, and they're interested in exploring their cultural identity.
Sava, Yates, Lupu, Szentagotai, and David (2009)
Used CUA to compare the costs and benefits in terms of QALYs of three treatments for depression: cognitive therapy (CT), rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), and fluoxetine (Prozac). Results indicated that CT and REBT both had greater cost-utility than fluoxetine but did not differ significantly from each other.
Norcross and Lambert (2011)
attribute 30% of variability in psychotherapy outcomes to patient contributions, 12% to the therapeutic relationship, 8% to the treatment method, 7% to therapist characteristics, 3% to other factors, and 40% to unexplained variance.
Troiden's Homosexual Identity Dvpt: SSIC
Sensitization- feels different; Self-recognition- realises attraction to same sex & homosexuality; Identity Assumption- more certain of homosexuality; Commitment- adopted homosexual way of life and out of closet
Mental Health Consultation (Caplan 1970)
distinguished between four types of mental health consultation. Each type consists of a triad that includes a consultant, a consultee, and a client or program.
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
Combines elements of MBSR and CBT. It was originally developed as a method for treating recurrent depression (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2001), and research has confirmed that it's an effective treatment not only for depression but also for anxiety, chronic pain, and insomnia. The primary goal: "enable clients to become self-aware, so they can learn to de-centre from distressing thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations and behaviours" (Scott & Adam, 2017, p. 246). Usually consists of an eight-session group program.
Five Stages of Self-Instructional Training
Cognitive Modeling: children observe a model perform a task while the model verbalizes instructions aloud Overt External Guidance: children perform the same task while the model verbalizes the instructions Self Guidance: children perform the task while verbalizing the instructions aloud themselves faded over guidance: children perform the task while whispering the instructions. Covert Self-Instruction: children perform the task while repeating the instructions subvocally
Client Centered Case Consultation
provide the consultee with a plan that will benefit the client.
Gordon's Indicated Prevention
are for individuals who are known to be at high-risk because they have early or minimal signs of a disorder. i.e. - drug abuse prevention program for adolescents who have experimented with drugs.
Section 7
(50 cards)
F scale (MMPI)
higher scores = random responding, faking bad, or significant pathology
internal locus of control and external locus of responsibility (IC-ER)
determine their own outcomes if given the chance but that others are responsible for keeping them from doing so
sexual dimorphism
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species.
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
external locus of control and internal locus of responsibility (EC-IR)
little control over their outcomes but tend to take responsibility for their own failures
Working with Asian Americans
be aware that differences in acculturation within families may be a source of conflict; have a holistic view of mind and body and express psychological problems as somatic symptoms; hierarchical and patriarchal, adhere to traditional gender roles, and emphasize family needs over individual needs; fear of losing face and shame are powerful motivators and may affect their willingness to discuss personal problems and express emotions; maintain a formal style during the course of therapy; periods of silence and avoidance of eye contact are expressions of respect and politeness. likely to prefer cognitive-behavior therapy and other brief structured goal-oriented, problem-focused approaches that focus more on the family than the individual.
Hall's communication context
High-context communication relies heavily on group understanding, nonverbal messages, and is characteristic of several cultural minority groups. Low-context communication relies on the verbal message, is independent of the context, and is characteristic of the White (mainstream) culture.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
controls circadian rhythm
effect size
standardized mean difference between experimental and control groups
IQ Correlation in identical twins
.85
Working with American Indian Clients
consider client's cultural identity, level of acculturation, and worldview; identify possible environmental contributors (e.g., discrimination, poverty, acculturation conflicts) often adhere to a collateral social system that incorporates the family, community, and tribe; recognize that cooperation, sharing, and generosity are important cultural values and that the interests of the family and tribe take priority over the interests of the individual; likely to regard wellness as depending on the harmony of mind, body, and spirit and illness as the result of disharmony; place more emphasis on nonverbal than verbal communication, consider listening to be more important than talking, and view direct eye contact as a sign of disrespect and a firm handshake as a sign of aggression; foster a collaborative therapeutic relationship and build trust by demonstrating familiarity with and respect for the client's culture and admitting any lack of knowledge. A collaborative, problem-solving, client-centered approach that avoids highly directive techniques and incorporates American Indian values and traditional healers is usually preferred. (network therapy)
IQ Correlation in biological siblings reared apart
.25
Jung described ______ as the source of all psychic energy.
libido
reticular activating system
the part of the brain that is involved in wakefulness, consciousness, and arousal
social facilitation
improved task performance in the presence of others
IQ Correlation in twins reared apart
.65
Boyd-Franklin's Multisystems Model
ecostructural approach; addresses multiple systems and empowers the family by utilizing its strengths
Irreversitbility
pre-operational - inability to imagine reversing a physical operation (i.e. small pieces = more to eat)
Working with LGBTQ clients
median age for being aware of their sexual orientation is between 13 and 15 Lesbians: the more widely they disclosed their sexual orientation to others, the greater their self-esteem and positive affectivity and the lower their anxiety. In contrast, in a study of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth, Kosciw, Palmer, and Kull (2015) disclosure of sexual and gender orientation to students and staff was associated with greater in-school victimization but also to higher levels of self-esteem and decreased depression. using cognitive-behavior therapy with an LGBTQ client who has received a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, it's important to distinguish between maladaptive thoughts and thoughts that reflect a normal response to stigmatization the client has experienced because of his/her sexual or gender orientation.
Fading
Gradual removal of prompts NOT reinforcement
internal locus of control and internal locus of responsibility (IC-IR)
the perception that we control our own fate and are responsible for our success and failure mainstream American culture
Diagnostic Overshadowing
used to describe the tendency of health professionals to attribute all behavioral, social, & emotional problems to client's diagnosis or situation. Sue and Sue (2012) when therapists assume that the presenting problems of gay clients are due to the clients' sexual orientation without considering other explanations.
Thinning
Reduction of reinforcement
Rosenthal effect
the result when an experimenter's preconceived idea of appropriate responding influences the treatment of participants and their behavior
Orbifrontal cortex
evaluates the reward value of food in terms of sensory features (taste, smell, sight)
IQ Correlation in biological siblings reared together
.45
Working with older clients
With the exception of neurocognitive disorder, the rates of mental disorders are lower among older adults than their younger and middle-aged counterparts (Kessler et al., 2005). older adults may respond more slowly to therapy and benefit most when treatment is tailored to their cognitive, sensory, and physical needs.
External locus of control and external locus of responsibility (EC-ER)
little or no control over their outcomes and are not responsible for them
children's adjustment to step parents are better when the child is _________ & ___________
younger & male
Gestalt Psychology
the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Biofeedback
controls involuntary body functions such as blood pressure, muscle tension, and body temp.
racial microaggressions
subtle insults directed at people of color and often done nonconsciously
object concept/object permanence
sensorimotor stage/objects or people continue to exist when they fall out of recognition.
goodness of fit model
maladjustment in young children is often the result of a mismatch between the child's temperament and the demands of the social environment, especially the parents' expectations and childrearing practices.
decentration (Piaget)
Concrete operational - ability to think of more than one quality at a time
Caplan's Obstacles to effective mental health services
lack of knowledge, skills, confidence, objectivity. He also identified theme interference as one of the causes of a lack of objectivity.
Working with African American clients
consider cultural identity, level of acculturation, and worldview; racism and other environmental factors may be contributors to the client's presenting problems; network is likely to include nuclear and extended family members, friends, and members of his/her church and community; roles within African American families are often flexible and that male-female relationships tend to be egalitarian; empower the client by, for example, helping the client acquire the problem-solving and decision-making skills he/she needs to control of his/her own life. With regard to interventions, African American clients usually prefer an egalitarian therapist-client relationship and a time-limited, problem-solving approach. Boyd-Franklin (2003) recommends using a multisystems approach
Halo effect error
Tendency to see one quality of a person and applying it to a person's total personality
Deindivduation
act in uncharacteristic ways anonymity is likely
single dominant gene
Huntington's disease, brown eyes of child
Acculturation (Berry)
(a) integration strategy: retain minority culture and adopt majority culture. (b) assimilation strategy: reject minority culture and adopt the majority culture. (c) separation strategy: retain minority culture and reject the majority culture. (d) marginalization strategy: reject minority and majority culture.
cultural encapsulation Wrenn 1962
mental health professionals are insensitive to cultural differences and believe that their own cultural assumptions about what constitutes mental health or normality applies to people from all cultural backgrounds.
Working with Hispanic American Families
often express psychological symptoms as somatic complaints; consider how a client's religious and spiritual beliefs might inform assessment, diagnosis, and treatment decisions; tend to emphasize family welfare over individual welfare; patriarchal and stress machismo (male dominance) and marianismo (female submissiveness); adopt a formal style (formalismo) in the initial therapy session but a more personal style (personalismo) in subsequent sessions. likely to prefer cognitive-behavior therapy, solution-focused therapy, family therapy, and group therapy. Therapy may be most effective when it incorporates culturally congruent techniques such as cuento therapy (the use of folktales to present models of adaptive behavior) and dichos (the use of proverbs and idiomatic expressions to help clients express their feelings).
Marlatt and Gordon
proposes that relapse is the result of immediate determinants and covert antecedents and describes high risk situations (an immediate determinant) as the immediate precipitators of alcohol use after a period of abstinence.
Predictor will have the greatest incremental validity when ____________ is low and the ____________ is moderate.
selection ratio base rate
Transduction/precausal reasoning
preoperational - kids mentally link experiences
efficacy and effectiveness research in psychotherapy
Efficacy = good internal validity but limited external validity Effectiveness = limited internal validity but good external validity.
Etic vs. Emic Perspective
emic: behavior is affected by culture and, as a result, psychological theories and interventions that apply to members of one culture may not apply to members of other cultures. etic: behavior is similar across cultures and that the same psychological theories and interventions are appropriate for everyone, regardless of their cultural background.
Goal of Gestalt Psychology
integrate the fragmented parts and make them whole. Recurring dreams are representations of parts of the self that have not been fully accepted/integrated
Low Selection Ratio
Lots of applicants to choose from
Section 8
(50 cards)
Object Relations Therapy Concerns
Therapy that prioritizes attachment, safety and security
Antisocial behavior & Delinquency have been linked to a ______________ parenting style.
laissez faire parenting style with harsh inconsistent discipline.
During infancy, the perception _____________ develops first.
preferred faces over visual patterns
Parkinson's disease neurotransmitters
degeneration of dopamine neurons in substantia nigra and upsets balance between dopamine and acetylcholine. Higher acetylcholine = extra motor symptoms
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from long term memory
When a listener is uninvolved/distracted from a message, and the communicator is appealing, or the message is fearful they are more susceptible to persuasion through the ______________________.
Peripheral Route
LISREL
Computer software to determine whether a causal relationship between variables is correct
Eigenvalue
Represents the total variance explained by each factor
first generation antipsychotics
work by blocking dopamine receptors used to that Schizophrenia chlorpromazine (Thorazine), haloperidol (Haldol), thioridazine (Mellaril), and fluphenizine (Prolixin)
Cannabis Intoxication
2 or more: conjunctival injection (redness of the eye), increased appetite, dry mouth, and tachycardia
diathesis-stress model
biopsychosocial model that suggests disorders are a combo of predisposition factors and exposure to stressors
Fettishism
intense sexual feelings, urges, or behavior involving the use of nonliving objects (e.g. shoes, gloves)
second generation antipsychotics
clozapine (Clozaril), risperidone (Risperdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), and aripiprazole (Abilify) used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders with psychotic symptoms, and some are FDA-approved as an adjunctive treatment for major depressive disorder. These drugs exert their therapeutic effects primarily by blocking dopamine (especially D3 and D4) receptors and serotonin receptors. Metabolic side effects instead of extrapyramidal
The Elaboration Likelihood Model proposes two routes of communication: the _______ & ____________
Central and peripheral
REBT suggests dysfunction is the result of ________ & ______________
irrational thoughts & irrational beliefs
Opioid withdrawal symptoms
muscle aches, agitation, insomnia, flu-like symptoms, yawning, sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
K scale (MMPI)
describes self in overly positive terms
elaborative rehearsal
making new info meaningful in order to enhance retention and retrieval. i.e. relating new info to previously learned information.
side effects of FGAs
Anticholinergic side effects are most likely with low potency FGAs (e.g., chlorpromazine and thioridazine) and include dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation, and tachycardia. (b) Extrapyramidal side effects are most likely with high-potency FGAs (e.g., haloperidol and fluphenizine) and include parkinsonism (resting tremor, muscle rigidity, slowed movement), dystonia (uncontrollable muscle contractions), akathisia (a sense of inner restlessness), and tardive dyskinesia. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a rare life-threatening side effect. Its symptoms include muscle rigidity, a high fever, autonomic dysfunction (e.g., unstable blood pressure, tachycardia, excessive sweating), and an altered mental state (e.g., confusion, combativeness).
Wernicke's encephalopathy
most serious form of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic patients
Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder)
The compulsive, persistent urge to pull out one's own hair.
Perseveration has been linked to lesions in the ______________________ of the frontal lobe
dorsolateral areas
needs assessment components
job requirements people performing the job goals of organization
tyramine-induced hypertensive crisis
results when a person taking a MAOI consumes food with tyramine
Tachycardia
Abnormally rapid heartbeat
Cross-Validation/Shrinkage
Refers to validating a correlation coefficient (e.g., a criterion-related validity coefficient) on a new sample. Because the same chance factors operating in the original sample are not operating in the subsequent sample, the correlation coefficient tends to "shrink" on cross-validation. In terms of the multiple correlation coefficient (R), shrinkage is greatest when the original sample is small and the number of predictors is large.
James-Lange Theory
the theory that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment
extrapyramidal symptoms
involuntary fine motor tremors, rigidity, uncontrollable retlessness, acute dystonia.
overlearning
Continued rehearsal of material after mastery
localized amnesia
lack of memory for or right after a specific event
Moderator variables effect ___________.
differential validity
Frotteurism
Compulsion to achieve sexual arousal by touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person in public situations
entorhinal cortex
an area of the medial temporal cortex that is a major source of neural signals to the hippocampus - plays a large role in alzheimers dementia
Nicotine enhances alertness and memory by mimicking __________________ at receptor sites.
Acetylcholine
Cannon-Bard Theory
physiological and emotional arousal are experienced at the same time
Roger's Client-Centered Therapy suggests dysfunction is primarily caused by _______________________________________.
incongruence between self and experience.
Long Term Potentiation Occurs in the ________________.
Hippocampus
Exhibitionism
compulsive need to expose one's body, particularly the genitals, to an unsuspecting stranger
inhalent intoxication
unsteady gate, depressed reflexes,, perceptual disturbance, dizziness, N/V, headache, nystagmus, tremor, hyporeflexia, slurred speech, supor, coma ~ respiratory depression, cardiac arrythmias
Lazarus Theory
Lazarus theory requires that interpretation must happen before arousal or emotion, which happen simultaneously. Since the event (story describing fear) was interpreted as being non-threatening before a physiological response (fight or flight) and emotion (fear) were to be perceived simultaneously, neither the physiological response (fight or flight) nor the emotion (fear) were elicited.
Psychogenic Model
Cause is psychological, such as emotional trauma, stress, or maladaptive learning
Stimulant withdrawal symptoms
Fatigue, vivid and unpleasant dreams, increased appetite.
In Attribution Style, Depression results when negative events are: _______, _________, & __________.
internal, stable, and global
Prodromal Symptoms Tyramine-Induced hypertensive crisis
headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomitting & sweating
American psychologists with a IC-IR worldview will have the most difficulty with a client who has a _____________ worldview.
IC-ER
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Freud Clarification
restating client's words in clearer terms
selective amnesia
an inability to remember certain details of an event
Schachter-Singer Theory
A theory of emotion that states that both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must occur before an emotion is consciously experienced.
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)
A test that is used to measure cognitive ability, especially in elderly.
Section 9
(50 cards)
Antidepressants
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), norepinephrine dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).
Methadone
doesn't produce the pleasurable effects of heroin, but it does reduce the craving for heroin and withdrawal symptoms.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation depression are caused by a deficiency of norepinephrine while mania is due to excessive norepinephrine.
migraine headache
a headache characterized by throbbing pain on one side of the head Linked to low levels of Serotonin Treatments include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ergot alkaloids, SSRIs, SSRI agonists, beta blockers, and a combination of thermal biofeedback and autogenic training.
anticonvulsant drugs
used to treat symptoms of epilepsy, acute mania and bipolar disorder with mixed episodes and include carbamazepine (Tegretol) and valproic acid (Depakene). Side effects include nausea, dizziness, sleepiness, lethargy, ataxia, tremor, visual disturbances, and impaired concentration. Blood levels must be monitored to avoid liver failure when taking valproic acid or carbamazepine and to avoid agranulocytosis (low white blood cell count) and aplastic anemia when taking carbamazepine.
Lithium
Lithium (Eskalith, Lithobid) is the first-line drug for acute mania and classic bipolar disorder (euphoric mania without rapid cycling). side effects: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, a metallic taste, increased thirst, weight gain, hand tremor, fatigue, and impaired memory and concentration. Lithium levels must be regularly checked to avoid lithium toxicity, which can cause seizures, coma, and death.
Parkinson's disease
neurodegenerative disorder that produces prominent motor symptoms. It's due to a loss of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra. There's no cure for Parkinson's, but symptoms are temporarily alleviated in the early stages with L-dopa, which increases dopamine levels. The main symptoms of Parkinson's disease represent four categories: tremor that begins in the hands and includes "pill rolling," impaired balance and equilibrium, muscle rigidity, and slowed voluntary movement (bradykinesia). Up to 50% of people have depression at some time during the disorder, with depressive symptoms preceding motor symptoms in about 20% of cases
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction low levels of ACh in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus have been linked to the early memory loss associated with Alzheimer's disease.
Focal onset seizures
local seizure in one hemisphere affecting only one side of the body
Azapirones
buspirone (BuSpar), used to treat generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety disorders. Side effects: dizziness, dry mouth, sweating, nausea, and headache. An advantages of buspirone is that it does not cause sedation, dependence, or tolerance.
Drugs for Alcohol Use Disorder
disulfiram (Antabuse), naltrexone (ReVia), and acamprosate (Campral). Disulfiram causes nausea and vomiting, shortness of breath, tachycardia, a throbbing headache, dizziness, and other unpleasant symptoms when taken in conjunction with alcohol. Naltrexone and acamprosate are opioid antagonists: Naltrexone reduces the pleasurable effects of and cravings for alcohol, while acamprosate just reduces cravings.
Generalized onset seizures (Grand mal)
Originate simultaneously in both cerebral hemispheres. AKA Tonic Clonic include a tonic phase or stiffening of muscles in the face and limbs and clonic phase that involves jerky rhythmic movements in the arms and legs. When the person regains consciousness, he/she may be depressed, confused, or fatigued and have no memory for the events that occurred during the seizure.
TCAs
amitriptyline (Elavil), imipramine (Tofranil), clomipramine (Anafranil), nortriptyline (Pamelor), and doxepin (Sinequan) treat major depressive disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (especially clomipramine), and neuropathic pain (especially nortriptyline and amitriptyline) inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine at synapses. Negative cardiovascular effects
General Onset non-motor seizure
absence seizures/petit mal very brief loss of consciousness with a blank or absent stare and, for some people, their eyes turn upwards and eyelids flutter.
Overshadowing
when two neutral stimuli are, from the start, repeatedly presented together before the US. In this situation, the two stimuli will elicit a CR when presented together; however, when each stimulus is presented alone, the more salient (stronger) stimulus produces a CR, but the less salient (weaker) stimulus does not.
Benzodiazepines
increase GABA activity and are used to treat anxiety, insomnia, seizures, and alcohol withdrawal. diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), and lorazepam (Ativan). paradoxical and rebound effects, tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms, Combining with alcohol can have a synergistic depressant effect that can be lethal.
stimulus generalization
learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
semiotic function
the ability to use symbols to represent actions or objects mentally
latent inhibition
pre-exposure to a neutral stimulus alone on multiple occasions prior to conditioning trials reduces the likelihood that the stimulus will become a CS and elicit a CR when it's subsequently paired with a US.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
A conditioned stimulus (CS) always elicits a ______________________ unconditioned response than the original unconditioned stimulus
Smaller (regardless of procedure)
compound conditioning
two or more stimuli are presented together and includes blocking and overshadowing.
SNRIs
venlafaxine (Effexor), duloxetine (Cymbalta), and desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) treat major depressive disorder, social anxiety disorder, and pain disorders More effective for severe depression inhibition of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine at synapses elevate blood pressure
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal Low levels of serotonin have been linked to depression, increased risk for suicide, bulimia nervosa, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and migraine headaches. Excessive levels have been linked to autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and food restriction associated with anorexia nervosa.
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder linked to abnormalities in the basal ganglia and abnormal levels of several neurotransmitters including GABA and glutamate Caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30. affective symptoms first followed by cognitive symptoms (e.g., short-term memory loss and impaired concentration) and motor symptoms (e.g., clumsiness, fidgeting, and facial grimacing).
Focal Onset Aware Seizures
simple partial seizure don't affect consciousness
stimulus discrimination
a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory Excessive glutamate can cause cell damage and death, which is referred to as "glutamate-induced excitotoxicity" and is believed to contribute to a number of conditions including stroke, seizure disorders, and several neurodegenerative diseases including Huntington's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
SSRIs
The SSRIs include fluoxetine (Prozac, Sarafem), fluvoxamine (Luvox), paroxetine (Paxil), sertraline (Zoloft), and citalopram (Celexa). Delayed Onset: 2-4 weeks Block Re-uptake of Serotonin first-line pharmacological treatment for major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder, Also used for premenstrual dysphoric disorder, OCD, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, PTSD, bulimia nervosa, and premature ejaculation.
Beta Blockers
propranolol (Inderal) inhibit the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and are used to treat hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, migraine headache, and essential tremor. Can be used to treat anxiety
experimental neurosis
A pattern of erratic behavior resulting from a demanding discrimination learning task, typically one that involves aversive stimuli.
Serotonin Syndrome
A person taking an SSRI in conjunction with an MAOI may develop Serotonin Syndrome
Focal Onset Impaired Awareness Seizure
cause a change in consciousness and may begin with an aura. The symptoms of both types depend on the origin of the seizure and may include abnormal sensations, hallucinations, a sense of déjà vu, and/or automatisms (e.g., lip smacking, repetitive finger tapping, walking in circles).
mood stabilizers
drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders
GABA
primary inhibitory neurotransmitter and is involved in memory, mood, arousal, sleep, and motor control. Low levels of GABA have been linked to insomnia, seizures, and anxiety, and benzodiazepines reduce anxiety and induce sleep by amplifying its effects.
Psychostimulants for ADHD
methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), pemoline (Cylert), and amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (Adderall). Increase dopamine and norepinephrine activity in the prefrontal cortex (Arnsten, 2009). Common side effects are insomnia, nervousness, decreased appetite, weight loss, and abdominal pain. These drugs can also suppress growth in children, but this can be reversed with "drug holidays" during school vacations.
Endorphins
effects are similar to those of opioid drugs - e.g., they contribute to feelings of pleasure and well-being and have analgesic effects. It's believed that acupuncture may relieve pain by stimulating the release of endorphins.
The most effective procedure conditioning procedure is _________________ conditioning
delay
MAOIs
phenelzine (Nardil), isocarboxazid (Marplan), and tranylcypromine (Parnate). useful for patients with treatment-resistant depression or atypical depression, which involves reversed vegetative symptoms such as hypersomnia, increased appetite, and reactive dysphoria. monoamine oxidase deactivates norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine, and the MAOIs increase the levels of these neurotransmitters by inhibiting the activity of this enzyme. Causes sexual disfunction and cannot be combined with food that contains tyramine (meats, soy, and aged cheese)
Barbiturates
thiopental (Pentothal), amobarbital (Amytal), and secobarbital (Seconal) Enhance GABA & used as a general anesthetic for anxiety, insomnia, and seizures. Side Effects: paradoxical excitement. tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms, and sudden withdrawal can cause seizures, delirium, and death. Like the benzodiazepines, taking a barbiturate in conjunction with alcohol can be lethal.
blocking in classical conditioning
classical conditioning of the first neutral stimulus blocks classical conditioning of the second neutral stimulus, and the second neutral stimulus never becomes a CS. Blocking occurs apparently because the second neutral stimulus does not provide any new information about the occurrence of the US
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Tyramine foods
aged cheese (cheddar, blue cheese, swiss cured meats (salami, sausages, pepperoni) sauerkraut, soy sauce, shrimp sauce yeast, fava beans,
substantia nigra
midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement
Drugs for Treating Alzheimer's Disease
cholinesterase inhibitors and an NMDA receptor antagonist. cholinesterase inhibitors delay the breakdown of acetylcholine and include tacrine (Cognex), donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (Exelon), and galantamine (Razadyne). All four have been approved for mild and moderate Alzheimer's disease, and donepezil has also been approved for severe Alzheimer's disease. The NMDA receptor antagonist memantine (Namenda) has been approved for moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease and is believed to exert its effects by regulating the activity of glutamate.
incremental validity
the increase in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a particular predictor.
Agonists vs. Antagonists
Agonists = causes stimulation of receptors Antagonists = binds to receptors and block other meds
TBI amnesia
When retrograde amnesia occurs, recent long-term memories are affected more than remote memories; and, when lost memories begin to return, those from the most distant past are recovered first. With regard to prognosis, most people experience the most recovery during the first three months with substantial additional improvement during the first year (e.g., Carroll et al., 2004; Lawhorne & Philpott, 2010). Many people continue to have some symptoms indefinitely, however, especially those with a moderate to severe injury.
Narcotic-Analgesics (Opioids)
(opium, morphine, heroin, codeine) and synthetic and semi-synthetic opioids (methadone, oxycodone, hydrocodone, fentanyl) used as a pre-surgery anesthetic and to treat pain Chronic use leads to dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms. Initial withdrawal symptoms are similar to the flu (e.g., runny nose, watery eyes, nausea, muscle aches, fever, and yawning); these are followed by insomnia, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, rapid heartbeat, and elevated blood pressure.
NDRIs
bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban), treat major depressive disorder and assist with smoking cessation inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine at synapses. S Advantages of bupropion are that it causes few anticholinergic effects, does not cause sexual dysfunction, and is not cardiotoxic.
Section 10
(50 cards)
reasons for job analysis
developing selection instruments identifying measures of job performance assisting in developing training programs
graded exposure
In exposure therapy, a gradual approach to exposing clients to feared objects or situations each exposure session should not end until the client has experienced a substantial decrease in anxiety
Opponenet-Process Theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green associated with negative after-images
language milestones
Cooing: 2-3 m Babbling: 6 m echolalia nonspecific and narrow babbling: 9 m "Momma"/ "Dadda" specific: 12 m holophrastic speech (one word request): 15m 50-70 words: 18 m (vocabulary spurt) 2 words together (telegraphic speech): 18-24 m understandable to strangers: 3 yrs
Worker-oriented job analysis
approach that focuses on the attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish the tasks
language underextension
referring to only one specific doll with the word "doll" doggie" to refer only to the family pet.
age of viability
the age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth 22-26 weeks
nativist theory
language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity
Teratogens
drugs, chemicals, and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm third to the eighth week after conception.
Super's theory of career development
Life-span/life-space theory: Individuals develop careers in stages Career decisions are not isolated from other aspects of their lives. five stages of career development: growth (birth to 14), exploration (15 to 24), establishment (25 to 44), maintenance (45 to 64), and disengagement (65+).
Equilibriation (Piaget)
innate drive toward a state of equilibrium between one's current ways of thinking and the environment. When disequilibrium occurs, a child is motivated to restore equilibrium through adaptation, which consists of two processes: Assimilation/accommodation.
flooding therapy
A behavioral treatment for phobias that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished. Good for agoraphobia
overregularization
child misapplies rules for plurals and past tense. For example, a child might say "foots" instead of "feet" and "telled" instead of "told."
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Tiedeman's career decision making model
vocational identity development as an ongoing decision-making process that's linked to Erikson's psychosocial stages of ego identity development. It distinguishes between two phases of career decision-making: (a) The initial anticipation phase includes the exploration, crystallization, choice, and clarification stages. During this phase, the person becomes familiar with different jobs, makes a tentative job choice, and prepares to implement that choice. (b) Next is the implementation phase, which includes the induction, reformation, and integration stages. During this phase, the person begins the chosen job, becomes proficient at it, and achieves a balance between his/her needs and the organization's demands
Dawis & Lofquist's Theory of Work Adjustment
tenure as the primary indicator of work adjustment and proposes that it's determined by two factors - satisfaction and satisfactoriness. Satisfaction = employee's satisfaction with the job. Satisfactoriness = employer's satisfaction with the employee.
alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND)
Job-oriented analysis techniques focus on ________________
task requirements.
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
A genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21.
Classical Test Theory
combination of true score and random error
Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device
every child is born with the knowledge to acquire language that enables children to understand language and speak in rule-governed ways. Evidence for Chomsky's theory is provided by studies showing that all languages have the same basic underlying grammatical structure and that all children pass through the same stages of language acquisition at similar ages.
partial fetal alcohol syndrome (p-FAS)
same central nervous system dysfunction as FAS, but facial anomalies are less severe and retarded physical growth may or may not be present.
KOIS
Kuder Occupational Interest Survey: Takes 20-30 minute to administer and is written at a 6th grade reading level Occupational Scales, College Major Scales, and Vocational Interest Estimates. The Strong Interest Inventory (SII) includes the Personal Styles Scales.
Sensitivity vs. Specificity
Sensitivity - proportion of people with condition that tested positive (SnNout - if neg can rule it out) Specificity - proportion of people without the condition who tested negative (SpPin - if positive, rule it in)
implosive therapy
behavioral therapy a type of counterconditioning that has the client imagine the most anxiety inducing thing first, in the hopes that they will realize that their fear is irrational
Angelman Syndrome
Deletion maternal chromosome 15 Duplication father's 15 Normal facial appearance Happy demeanor, episodes unprovoked laughter Developmental/learning delays, ataxia, nonverbal better than verbal
social interactionist theory
explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)
developed for PTSD, but now used for multiple disorders. combines exposure to trauma-related imagery, exposure to negative cognitions related to the feared event, rehearsal of adaptive cognitions, and rapid lateral eye movements, and it's based on the assumption that eye movements facilitate the mental processing of traumatic memories. Despite evidence for its effectiveness, it's not clear if the beneficial effects of EMDR depend on eye movements.
suicide contract
contract between the patient and nurse (or significant other) in which the patient will call the designated person when the patient has thoughts of suicide NOT EFFECTIVE - SHOULD NOT USE
Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
in males: two or more X chromosomes in addition to a single Y chromosome. Males with this disorder develop a normal male identity but have incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics, gynecomastia (breast enlargement), and a low testosterone level.
systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. relaxation ---> anxiety thermometer (hierarchy) ---> client imagines the stimuli included the hierarchy and uses the relaxation procedure while doing so
Accommodation (Piaget)
child modifies an existing cognitive schema or creates a new schema to fit the new object or situation.
Holland's Theory of Occupational Choice
there are 6 basic personality types starting at top and going to the right: Realistic-Investigative-Artistic-Social-Enterprising-Conventional R.I.A.S.E.C people are most productive and satisfied at work when there's a high degree of congruence between a person's personality and the characteristics of the work environment.
Matching Law
when two or more behaviors are concurrently reinforced on different schedules, the rate of performing each behavior is proportional to the frequency of the reinforcement.
verbal language components
phonemes - smallest unit of sound morphemes - smallest units of meaningful language semantics - meanings of words/phrases syntax - how words are organized into phrases pragmatics - social context of language/communication
Prenatal exposure to cocaine
causes spontaneous abortion during first trimester, premature birth, low birthweight. infants tend to be irritable and overly reactive to environmental stimuli, often have a shrill piercing cry, and are difficult to calm and feed. In school, these children may have motor, attention, memory, and behavior problems; in adolescence, they may have difficulty with problem-solving and abstract reasoning tasks and are at increased risk for delinquency.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
language overextension
generalizing a word, calling every male "dad" "doggie" not only to refer to dogs but to all furry, four-legged animals.
overjustification effect
The overjustification effect predicts that, when people are externally reinforced for engaging in an intrinsically rewarding behavior, their intrinsic motivation declines
prayer-willi syndrome
when both number 15 chromosomes are maternal with no paternal input - or deletion of paternal deletion of chromosome 15 narrow forehead, almond-shaped eyes, short stature, and small hands and feet; hypotonia (poor muscle tone); global developmental delays; hyperphagia (chronic overeating) and obesity; hypogonadism; intellectual disabilities; and skin-picking and other self-injurious behavior
Kirkpatrick's model
4 Levels of training outcomes: 1. Reaction criteria: focuses on what participants thought/felt about the program 2. Learning criteria: provides a quantifiable measure of what has been learned during the program 3. Behavior criteria: addresses the impact the program had on a participant's performance/behavior in the workplace 4. Results criteria: measures the effects of the program on broader organizational goals & objectives
fetal alcohol syndrome
most severe alcohol spectrum disorder, and its symptoms include small eye openings, thin upper lip, and other facial anomalies; retarded physical growth; central nervous system dysfunction (e.g., intellectual deficits, slowed processing speed, hyperactivity); problems with the heart, kidneys, liver, and other organs; and hearing and vision impairments.
Piaget Constructivist Theory
cognitive development relies on a combination of biological maturation and experience and describes it as an active process in which a child constructs knowledge by interacting with the environment.
cue exposure therapy
exposing a client to cues (conditioned stimuli) associated with a substance while prohibiting him/her from using the substance. Doing so weakens the strength of the relationship between the cues and substance use, apparently as the result of extinction or habituation effective when used alone, but there's evidence that its effectiveness increases when it's combined with training in coping strategies to use when faced with cues, such as reminding oneself about the negative consequences of substance use and engaging in alternative activities
covert sensitization
a treatment that uses prolonged, imaginal exposure to engagement in a sexually deviant act but also imagining the negative consequences that result from it Clockwork Orange
Assessment Centers
Method of evaluating candidates using content-valid work samples of a job; typically for managerial positions.
aversion therapy
stimuli associated with the problem behavior are paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces an unpleasant response that's incompatible with the reinforcing response. As a result, stimuli associated with the problem behavior become conditioned stimuli and produce the unpleasant response rather than the self-reinforcing response.
Assimilation (Piaget)
child attempts to understand a new object or situation using an existing cognitive schema
utility analysis
measures cost effectiveness of selection procedure.
Turner Syndrome (XO)
in females: all or part of an X chromosome is missing. Females with this disorder don't develop secondary sex characteristics and are infertile, and they have a short stature, stubby fingers, drooping eyelids, a receding or small lower jaw, and a web-like neck.
Section 11
(50 cards)
Kagan Behavioral Inhibition
tendency to respond to unfamiliar people and situations with negative affect and withdrawal. He attributes the physiological responses associated with BI (e.g., high levels of salivary cortisol and muscle tension) to a biological predisposition that involves heightened activity in the amygdala.
separation anxiety
begins at about six to eight months, is most intense from 14 to 18 months, and thereafter gradually declines.
concrete operational stage
7 to 12 years of age. Use logical operations classify objects according to their physical characteristics; order items in terms of length or other quantitative dimension; perform number operations such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing; Decentration: focus on more than one aspect of an object or situation at the same time Reversibility: iunderstand that actions and processes can be reversed. Conservation develops in a predictable order with horizontal decalage
permissive parents
low in demandingness and high in responsiveness. Children of these parents tend to be self-centered, immature, and rebellious, and they have poor impulse control and social skills and low levels of academic achievement.
Thomas and Chess Temperament
three categories of infant emotional/behavioural style: easy (positive mood, regular body functions, adaptable), slow to warm up (intially withdraws but is soon able to adapt to new situations), and difficult (negative mood, irregular body functions, tend to withdraw in new situations)
(Rothbart) self-regulation
processes that facilitate, maintain, and inhibit reactivity and consists of one factor - effortful control - which is the ability to "inhibit a dominant response ... in order to perform a subdominant response
representational thought (Piaget)
child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
conventional morality (Kohlberg)
second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior "Good boy/Good Girl"
Authoritarian parents
high in demandingness and low in responsiveness. children tend to be insecure, moody, and dependent, are easily annoyed, and have poorer social skills and lower levels of academic achievement than children of authoritative parents do.
Autonomous stage (piaget)
10-11 years old Children believe that rules are determined by agreement between people and can be changed by agreement.
authoritative parents
high in both demandingness and responsiveness. Children of authoritative parents have the best outcomes: They're self-confident, independent, and cooperative, and have good social skills and high levels of academic achievement.
Gender Schema (Bem, 1981)
combines elements of cognitive developmental theory and social learning theory and proposes that children organize gender-typed experiences and information into gender schemas that they use to perceive, encode, and interpret information about themselves and others.
Premoral stage (Piaget)
Birth - 5 years children have very limited understanding of rules and moral behavior.
male and female teachers pay more attention to and give more praise to ___________________ students.
male
postconventional morality (kohlberg)
adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles Justice & fairness
formal operational stage
12 years of age through adulthood Think abstractly Hypothetical-deductive reasoning egocentrism, or separating one's own abstract thoughts from those of other people. The imaginary audience emerges, where adolescent's belief that he or she is always the subject of other people's attention and concern. Personal fable emerges where child thinks they are special and unique, can't be understood by others, and is omnipotent and invulnerable to harm.
transduction reasoning
preoperational children to think that unrelated events that occur at the same time are causally related
social learning theory
propose that the acquisition of gender-typed preferences and behaviors precedes the acquisition of gender-related beliefs. Bussey and Bandura's (1999) social cognitive theory is one version of this approach, and it proposes that gender identity development is the result of a combination of observation and imitation of the behaviors of same-gender adults and children and differential reinforcement that occurs when children receive praise and other reinforcement only when they engage in gender-appropriate behaviors.
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
assistance provided to a child by another person more effective when it involves the use of prompts, questions, and feedback rather than providing correct answers and solutions
Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory
gender identity, gender stability, gender constancy
make-believe symbolic play (Vygotsky)
creates a zone of proximal development that enables children to practice new social roles and behaviors.
social referencing
reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation. 6-8 months
synchrony effect
differences in circadian rhythms and that peak circadian arousal and task performance is in the morning for older adults and in the late afternoon and evening for younger adults
Heteronomous stage (Piaget)
5-6 years old children believe that rules are made by authorities and cannot be changed. base their judgments primarily on the consequences of the behavior - and the worse the consequences, the worse the behavior.
secure attachment style (Ainsworth)
explores the room when his/her mother is present, may or may not cry when she leaves, actively seeks contact with her when she returns, and prefers her to a stranger. Mothers of these babies are sensitive and responsive.
Uninvolved parents/rejecting neglecting parents
low in both demandingness and responsiveness. Children of uninvolved parents tend to have the worst outcomes: They have low self-esteem and self-control, tend to be moody and irritable, are noncompliant and demanding, have poor social skills and low levels of academic achievement, and are prone to drug use and antisocial behavior.
Effects of increasing age
older adults experience the greatest age-related decline in recent long-term (secondary) memory, followed by the working memory aspect of short-term memory. In contrast the storage aspect of short-term memory (also known as primary memory) and remote long-term memory (also known as tertiary memory) are relatively unaffected by increasing age.
Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
gap between what a child can currently do independently and what he or she can do with assistance from an adult or more competent peer
reminiscence bump
the empirical finding that people over 40 years old have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other periods of their lives
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage
0-2 years- first stage, children learn entirely through the movements they make and the sensations that result. Reflexes - 0 to 1 month Primary Circular Reactions - 1-4 months (thumb sucking) Secondary Circular Reactions - 4-8 months (shakes rattle) Coordination of Secondary Reactions - 8-12 months (imitates others) Tertiary Circular Reactions - 12-18 months - purposefully discovers consequences Internalization of Schemas - 18-24 months - mental represenations
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Social & Cultural influences with 8 stages Each stage builds on tasks of the previous stage, successful mastery leads to sense of self birth-1 year: trust vs. mistrust/hope 1-3 years: autonomy vs. shame and doubt/will 3-6 years: initiative vs. guilt/purpose 6-12 years: industry vs. inferiority/competence adolescence: identity vs. role confusion/fidelity young adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation/love middle adulthood: generativity vs. stagnation/care late adulthood: integrity vs. despair/wisdom
After divorce, custodial mothers may show ________________ toward their children (especially sons) and be _________ authoritarian in their discipline, while noncustodial fathers often become more indulgent and permissive.
less affection; more
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. make-believe play and use one object to represent another (e.g., pretend that a cardboard box is a race car), invent imaginary playmates, and participate in role-playing with other children.
Egocentrism (Piaget)
limits preoperational child to understand that other people don't experience things the same way they do. Magical thinking and animism are two outcomes of the limitations of this stage: Magical thinking is the belief that just thinking about something can make it happen, and animism is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities.
Rothbart Temperament
organism influenced over time by heredity, maturation, and experience Reactivity & Self Regulation questionnaires
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
cognitive development as being influenced by social and cultural factors. cognitive development always occurs first on an interpersonal level and then on an intrapersonal level. private speech = more effective problem solving
Goodness-of-Fit Model (Thomas & Chess)
child's behavioral and emotional outcomes are affected by the match between the child's temperament and the demands of his/her social environment. For example, infants with a difficult temperament can become less difficult and more adaptable if their parents provide them with a stable environment and allow them to respond to new experiences at a slow pace.
Ainsworth Strange Situation
a sequence of staged episodes that illustrates the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother
temperament
genetically based but also environmentally influenced tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events that serve as the building blocks of personality low to moderate stability, with temperament becoming more stable after three years of age
insecure-ambivalent attachment (Ainsworth)
stays close to his/her mother initially, is distressed when she leaves, may be angry and resist her attempts at contact when she returns, and is fearful of a stranger even when his/her mother is present. Mothers of these children are inconsistent in their caregiving.
Harlow's Monkeys
Showed that tactile and comfort was favored over nourishment
centration and irreversibility
centration: tendency to focus on one aspect of an object or situation to the exclusion of all other aspects irreversibility: which is the inability to understand that an action or process can be reversed
Freud Personality Development
-driving force for development=sexual (BIOLOGICAL) needs -5 stages - OAPLG -over/underindulging stage results in fixation -stress later in life may cause regression
childhood amnesia (infantile amnesia)
a phenomenon where many episodic memories of early childhood are inaccessible in later life
Rothbart Reactivity
responsivity of underlying biological processes and is determined by the latency, duration, and intensity of attentional, affective, and motor responses to positive and negative stimuli. Surgency/extraversion is characterized by a high activity level, intense pleasure seeking, and a low level of shyness, negative affectivity is characterized by mood instability and a tendency to be sad, fearful, and irritable.
ethological theory of attachment
Bowlby's theory, the most widely accepted view of attachment, which regards the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival.
Object Permanence (Piaget)
occurs in the sensorimotor stage (an object the child can't see still exists)
preconventional morality (Kohlberg)
Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.
Vygotsky - proximal development
___________ developed a zone of ____________ that reflects a continuum of cognitive development, ranging from the child's individual capacity for problem solving to a more advanced and collaboratively-based level of cognitive development
stranger anxiety
begins at about eight to ten months and begins to decline at about age two.
Section 12
(50 cards)
Delusional Disorder Subtypes
Erotomanic, grandiose, jealous, persecutory, somatic, mixed, unspecified
bipolar 2 disorder
requires at least one hypomanic episode AND at least one major depressive episode.
Lithium
mood stabilizer for bipolar disorder
Suicide rates
males has been consistently higher than the rate for females with males being 3.6 times more likely than females to commit suicide males ages 65 and older had the highest rate, while females ages 45 to 54 had the highest rate followed by females ages 55 to 64 Highest was American Indians/Alaska Natives followed, in order, by Whites, Asian/Pacific Islanders, Blacks, and Hispanics.
Manic vs. hypomanic episode
Manic: lasts at least 7 days; causes severe impairment in functioning; may necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others; may have psychotic features. Hypomanic: lasts at least 4 days; NO marked impairment in functioning; does NOT require hospitalization; no psychotic features.
Central Limit Theorem
The theory that, as sample size increases, the distribution of sample means of size n, randomly selected, approaches a normal distribution. standard error of means = population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size.
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
schizoaffective disorder
concurrent symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive or manic episode for most of the duration of the illness, but with the presence of delusions or hallucinations for two or more weeks without mood symptoms
treatment of major depressive disorder
tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and other antidepressants. Evidence-based psychosocial interventions include cognitive-behavior therapy, interpersonal therapy, behavioral activation therapy, problem-solving therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, and emotion focused therapy.
mediator variable
EXPLAINS the relationship between independent and dependent variables
brief psychotic disorder
Psychotic disturbance involving delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech (e.g., derailment, tangentiality), and grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior Lasting less than 1 month; often occurs in reaction to a stressor.
disorganized/disoriented attachment (Ainsworth)
fearful of his/her mother and often has a dazed or confused facial expression. A baby with this pattern may or may not be distressed when his/her mother leaves and exhibits disorganized, confused behavior when she returns and when with a stranger. The majority of these babies have been maltreated by their caregivers.
covert sensitization therapy
a milder form of aversion therapy in which graphic imagery is used to create unpleasant associations with specific stimuli
onset of schizophrenia
late adolescence or early adulthood, but psychotic symptoms decrease with age
comorbidity of schizophrenia
anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and tobacco use disorder. With regard to the latter, the studies have found that about 70 to 85% of individuals with schizophrenia are tobacco users and, according to the DSM-5, over half of individuals with this diagnosis meet the diagnostic criteria for tobacco use disorder.
depression: cultural factors
Latino, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Asian, and other non-Western cultures = larger number of somatic symptoms Western cultures = larger number of psychological symptoms.
Bipolar 1 vs Bipolar 2
1 - manic episodes, depressive episodes common but not required for diagnosis 2 - hypomanic episodes, >1 major depressive episoes required
Discriminant Function Analysis
multivariate technique when two or more predictors will be used to estimate status on one nominal (grouping) variable.
Schizophrenia risk factors
Parent 6% Biological sibling 9% Child of one parent with schizophrenia 13% Dizygotic (fraternal) twin 17% Child of two parents with schizophrenia 46% Monozygotic (identical) twin 48%
cognitive theory of depression
Beck attributes depression to a negative cognitive triad that consists of negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future.
seasonal affective disorder
Controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during winter months and improved mood during spring. Can be treated using phototherapy, using bright light and high levels of negative ions.
The diagnosis of Tourette's disorder requires ______________________.
at least one vocal tic and multiple motor tics that may occur together or at different times.
Paraphilia
recurrent intense sexual urge, fantasy, or behavior that involves unusual objects, activities, or situations
Prognosis for schizophrenia
A better prognosis is associated with abrupt and later onset, a precipitating stressor, female gender, absence of anosognosia, and absence of structural brain abnormalities
Rates of depression
similar for boys and girls in childhood; however, the rate for females increases in early adolescence while the rate for males remains fairly stable. female adolescents and adults having a rate that is 1.5 to 3 times higher than the rate for male adolescents and adults.
hypomanic episode
less severe and less disruptive version of a manic episode that is one of the criteria for several mood disorders elevated, expansive, or irritable mood; increased activity or energy; and three or more symptoms of mania for at least four consecutive days. Symptoms are not severe enough to cause marked impairment in functioning or a need for hospitalization and do not include psychotic features
Dysruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)
presence for at least 12 MONTHS of (a) severe and recurrent temper outbursts that are verbal and/or behavioral, are grossly out of proportion to the situation or provocation, and occur at least THREE TIMES PER WEEK; and (b) a persistently irritable or angry mood that is observable to others most of the day and nearly EVERY DAY between outbursts.
Carbamazepine
Anticonvulsant
major depressive episode
five or more characteristic symptoms with at least one symptom being depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in most or all activities. Symptoms last for at least two weeks and cause significant distress and/or impaired functioning.
cyclothymic disorder
numerous periods of hypomanic symptoms that do not meet the criteria for a hypomanic episode and numerous periods of depressive symptoms that do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode. The minimum duration of symptoms for cyclothymic disorder is two years for adults or one year for children and adolescents.
Treatment of bi-polar disorder
use of lithium; valproate, carbamazepine, or other anticonvulsant drug; and/or a second-generation antipsychotic drug such as aripiprazole, olanzapine, or risperidone. Evidence-based psychosocial interventions include family focused therapy, psychoeducation, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, and cognitive-behavior therapy.
bipolar 1 disorder
requires at least one manic episode that may or may not have been preceded or followed by one or more major depressive or hypomanic episodes.
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
depressed mood with TWO or more characteristic symptoms (e.g., poor appetite or overeating, insomnia or hypersomnia, feelings of hopelessness) for at least TWO YEARS in adults or ONE YEAR in children and adolescents.
delusional disorder
one or more delusions for a duration of at least one month and (b) the person's overall functioning has not been markedly impaired except for any direct effects of the delusion.
Lewinson's reinforcement theory
depression is the result of a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement for social behaviors due to a lack of reinforcement in the environment and/or poor social skills.
Anosognosia
A condition in which a person with an illness seems unaware of the existence of his or her illness.
For the diagnosis of pedophilic disorder, the person must be _____ years of age or older and at least _____ years older than the children he responds to with sexual arousal. The child must be ____ years or younger.
16;5;13
Treatment of Schizophrenia
antipsychotic drug, adjunctive medications to treat comorbid disorders, cognitive behavioral therapy, family psychoeducation and other family interventions, assertive community treatment, supported employment, and social skills training.
moderator variable
AFFECTS of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.
manic episode
persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased activity or energy for at least one week. It includes three or more characteristic symptoms (e.g., inflated self-esteem or grandiosity, decreased need for sleep, flight of ideas) and marked impairment in functioning, a need for hospitalization to avoid harm to self or others, and/or the presence of psychotic features
insecure/avoidant attachment (Ainsworth)
seems indifferent toward his/her mother, exhibits little distress when she leaves, avoids her when she returns, and reacts to his/her mother and to a stranger in a similar way. Mothers of these children are either rejecting or intrusive and over-stimulating
Etiology of Bipolar Disorder
linked to heredity, neurotransmitter and brain abnormalities, and circadian rhythm irregularities concordance rates of .67 to 1.0 for monozygotic twins and about .20 for dizygotic twins norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate abnormalities abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and basal ganglia Circadian rhythm irregularities in sleep-wake cycle, the secretion of hormones, appetite, and core body temperature
brain abnormalities in schizophrenia
excessive dopamine, abnormal brain tissue, low activity in frontal lobes
A restricted range of scores tends to __________ the correlation coefficient.
lower
Schizophrenia
requires (a) the presence of at least two of five characteristic (acute phase) symptoms during a one-month period with at least one symptom being delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech and (b) continuous signs of the disorder for at least six months. The five characteristic symptoms are the same as those for schizophreniform disorder.
Etiology of Major Depressive Disorder
Low serotonin metabolites, sensative beta adrenergic receptors, high cortisol, abnormal thyroid axis, GABA/glutamate/endogenous opiates may have role, psychosocial/life events especially childhood, genetics. concordance rate for unipolar depression is about .50 for monozygotic twins and .20 for dizygotic twins lower-than-normal levels of norepinephrine and serotonin and increased levels of cortisol in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. structural and functional abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus
learned helplessness model (Seligman)
links depression to repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative life events that results in a sense of helplessness, and a reformulated version stresses the role of a negative cognitive style that involves attributing negative life events to stable, internal, and global factors. The most recent revision of the model (referred to as hopelessness theory) describes a sense of hopelessness as the proximal and sufficient cause of depression which, in turn, is the result of exposure to negative events and a negative cognitive style
statistical power refers to the ability to _________________
reject a false null hypothesis
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
requires FIVE or more symptoms of a major depressive episode for at least TWO WEEKS with at least one symptom being depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in most or all activities.
schizophreniform disorder
1-6 months one symptom being delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech. The five characteristic symptoms are delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms (e.g., avolition, alogia, anhedonia)
Section 13
(7 cards)