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Biology Science

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Cards (282)

Section 1

(50 cards)

stele

Front

the vascular tissue of a root or stem is collectively called the stele

Back

stems -

Front

meristematic cells - dermal / ground / vascular

Back

leaf surface

Front

• upeer - epidermal cells / wax cuticle • lower - epidermal cells / stomata / guard cels

Back

turgor pressure

Front

The cell contents press the plasma membrane agains the cell wall, and the cell wall then presses against the protoplast, producing turgor pressure. turgid / plasmolysis

Back

root types

Front

• fibrous root system - monocots • taproot system - dicots - primary (or tap) root / lateral roots

Back

epidermis - periderm

Front

epidermis - a layer of tightly packed cells periderm - protective tissues in woody plants which replaces the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots

Back

phloem

Front

• transports sucrose, hormones, etc. • anucleate living cells • seedless vascular plants & gymnosperms - sieve cells - sieve tube - long distance sugar transportation • angiosperms - sieve tube member - sieve plate - companion cell - plasmodesmata

Back

pith

Front

ground tissue that is internal to the vascular tissue

Back

secondary growth

Front

• woody dicots - (lateral meristems) vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xylem and secondary phloem / cork cambium replaces the epidermis with the thicker, tougher periderm • monocots - no vascular cambium, no secondary growth

Back

meristem

Front

• perpetually undifferentiated tissues, leading to new cells that can elongate • apical meristem and lateral meristem

Back

vascular tissue

Front

• Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.

Back

stele

Front

vascular tissue of a root or stem root - solid central vascular cylinder stem - vascular bundles

Back

external stem structure

Front

• terminal bud / axillary bod (branches / flowers) • node / internode • blade / petiole • terminal bud scale scars / bundle scars

Back

secondary growth in stems (also in roots)

Front

• annual rings - heart wood / sapwood • dendrochronology

Back

cortex

Front

ground tissue that is external to the vascular tissue

Back

pericycle

Front

lateral roots arise from the pericycle, the outmost cell layer in the vascular cylinder, wich is adjacent to and just inside the endodermis.

Back

modified stems

Front

bulbs / corms / rhizomes / runners&stolons / tubers / tendrils / cladophylls

Back

short-distance movement

Front

• water - osmosis / aquaporins (facilitating diffusion) - bulk flow (movement of liquid in response to a pressure gradient) • molecules and ions - membrane proteins / active transport [ATP necessary, proton pump] / passive [smport, ion channels] • root hairs • mineral (cations) - active transport • water - passive • endoderm - casparian strip

Back

internal stem structure

Front

eudicot - vascullar tissue arranged in a ring -pith -cortex monocot -scattered vascular bundles

Back

plant body

Front

• roots - anchors the plant / absorbs water & mineral • shoots - support / transport • leaves - photosynthesis • meristematic cells - mitosis - meristematic cell / differentiating cell (epidermal, vascular, storage, etc...)

Back

mesophyll

Front

• monocots - just mesophyll • most eudicots - palisade mesophyll / spongy mesophyll

Back

ground tissue

Front

• parenchyma [living] - most common - storage, secretion, photosynthesis (chlorenchyma/chloroplasts) • collenchyma [living] - provide support • sclerenchyma [non-living] - fibers, sclereids, strengthen tissues

Back

root x-section

Front

• epidermis • cortex • endodermis - casparian strips - suberin • stele - pericycle ( lateral roots) / phloem / xylem / pith

Back

Xylem vs Phloem

Front

• Xylem - water&minerals - adhesion-cohesion - diffusion (osmosis) - xylem to mesophyll cells & out of leaf = transpiration • Phloem - photosynthate - pressure-flow - palisade mesophyll parenchyma cells (chlorenchyma) into phloem via symport

Back

adventitious roots

Front

prop roots / aerial roots / pneumatophores / contractile roots / parasitic roots / food storage roots / water storage roots /buttress roots

Back

woody eudicots and gymnersperms

Front

• cork cambium - cork / out bark - suberin • lenticels - permit gas exchange

Back

pressure-flow hypothesis of solute transport in phloem

Front

• sugar sources - chlorenchyma • sugar sinks - apexes / root cortex [storage] • flow can be up or down • phloem-loading - symport [live cells] - water follows [up] turgor pressure - photosynthate removed at sink [down] turgor pressure - flow is toward the sink

Back

phloem transport

Front

• photosynthate • hormones, etc. • phloem - sieve cells - sieve tube member cells [companion cells]

Back

rate of transpiration

Front

• regulated by stomata - CO2 in / H20 out - guard cells [turgor pressure K+] -microfibrils -cell wall thickness • temperature / wind velocity / humidity / CO2

Back

leaves

Front

main site of photosynthesis - determinate structures - monocot leaves = parallel veins - eudicot leaves = nteed or reticulate veins

Back

lateral meristems

Front

woody plants - cork cambium - out bark - vascular cambim - 2° vascular tissue - secondary xylem & phloem "rings"

Back

monocot vs eudicot root cross section

Front

...

Back

xylem transport

Front

• transpiration - adhesion-cohesion • bulk flow - vessels / tracheids

Back

simple vs compound leaves

Front

• simple - blade [teeth, indentations or lobes] -petiole • compound - blade - leaflets - pinnate - palmate

Back

water-conducting cells of xylem

Front

tracheids and vessel elements - dead at functional maturity

Back

three basic plant tissue types

Front

• dermal tissue - prevent water loss / protection • ground tissue - support, storage, photosynthesis, secretion • vascular tissue - for conduction - xylem / phloem

Back

adhesion-cohesion-tension model of water transport in plants

Front

5. transpiration 4. pulled into leaves by adhesion-cohesion forces [hydrogen bonding] 3. up the stem 2. transported through cortex&endodermis into the stele [xylem-vessels&tracheids] 1. water absorbed by root

Back

water stress responses

Front

• leaf modifications - thicker epidermis - fewer stomata - inset stomata - trichomes • regulate stomata opening/closing • pneumatophores - lenticels

Back

Casparian strip

Front

a belt made of suberin, a waxy material impervious to water and dissolved minerals

Back

xylem

Front

• water & mineral • dead cells • tracheids - pits • vessels - perforation plates --------------------------------------- gymnosperms - tracheids only angiosperms - vessels & tracheids

Back

apical meristems

Front

protoderm - epidermis procambium - primary (1°) ground meristem - ground tissue

Back

long distance movement

Front

• transpiration / evaporation pulling - adhesion - water molecules sticking to a surface - cohesion - water molecules sticking together

Back

leaf arrangements - phyllotaxy

Front

• alternative - ivy • opposite - periwinkle • whorled - sweet woodruff

Back

water potential (Ψw) Ψ=Ψs+Ψp

Front

• used to predict which way water will move -close to 0 in soils -negative in air -proton pump - cations diffuse in • water follows • adhesion/cohesion

Back

transport mechanisms - 3 transport routes

Front

• apoplast - region between adjacent cell walls • symplast - network of cells interconnected by plasmodesmata • transmembrane - short-distance transport

Back

modified leaves

Front

floral leaves (bracts) spines reproductive leaves window leaves shade leaves insectivorous leaves -pitcher plants -sundew -venus flytrap

Back

root structure

Front

• root cap - root cap cells (protection) / columella cells (amyloplasts perception of gravity) • zone of cell division - apical meristem / quiescent center • zone of elongation • zone of maturation

Back

plasmodesmata

Front

channels connect sieve-tube members and the companion cells

Back

dermal tissue

Front

• epidermal cells - cutin/wax • guard cells - stomata, transpiration • trichomes - reduce evaporation / deter herbivory • root hairs - increase surface area

Back

sugar-conducting cells of phloem

Front

• sieve-tube elements / sieve-tube members • lack a nucleus, ribosomes, a distinct vacuole and cytoskeletal elements - enable nutrients to pass more easily • end walls between sieve-tube elements called sieve plates - pores • companion cell which is connected to the sieve-tube element by plasmodesmata

Back

Section 2

(50 cards)

Cutaneous receptors four touch, hearing, balance

Front

• nociceptors - pain • thermoreceptor - cold/warm receptors • proprioceptors - muscles • baroreceptors - blood pressure • several types for touch - finger-tips/face

Back

Color vision

Front

• rods - colorless vision in dim light - nocturnal animals - pure rod retinals - owls and bats

Back

N-fixing bacteria

Front

• N often limiting nutrient - abundant in atmosphere as N2, but not usable by plants • symbiotic mutualism - Rhizobium bacteria - fix nitrogen / hormones / antibiotics / detoxification / make nutrients more available - plants (legumes) provide carbohydrates / nodules

Back

Potassium (K+)

Front

• stomatal control • protein synthesis • ionic balance

Back

Olfaction = smell

Front

• arthropods • neurons - upper nasal passages - olfactory nerve - brain • humans can discern thousands of different smells

Back

Phosphorus (P) H2PO4- HPO42-

Front

• nucleotides • phospholipi • Adenosine triphosphate - ATP

Back

major source of plant energy/nutrition

Front

• photosynthesis • CO2, H20, light • macronutrients needed in large amounts • micronutrients needed in trace amount

Back

Bone building/destroying

Front

• osteoblasts - bone building cells • osteoclasts - bine-destroying cells "resorption" • parathyroid hormone - stimulates resorption • calcitonin - inhibits resorption • Vitamin D - rickets • usage

Back

Exoskeletons

Front

• arthropods - protection - muscle attachment - prevent desiccation

Back

Rod & Cone structure

Front

• inner segment - mitochondria - vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

Back

Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+

Front

• photosynthesis • amino acids • activates some enzymes

Back

parasitic plants

Front

• haustoria (parasitic roots) • photosynthetic - mistletoe (hemiparasite • non-photosynthetic - dodder / indian pipe (mycoheterotroph)

Back

water&mineral availability

Front

• proton pump • cation exchange (a process in which cations are displaced from soil particles by other cations, paticularly H+) • ion channels • symport • active transport

Back

Growth & genetic height potential

Front

• epiphyseal growth plate - cartilage proliferation - calcification/ossification - lengthening ends by late adolescence - width continues • nature - genetics • nurture - eat right - sleep > growth hormone - exercise

Back

Nitrogen (N) NO3- NH4+

Front

• amino acid - proteins/enzymes • nucleotides (DNA) • chlorophyll

Back

essential nutrients in plants

Front

...

Back

Navigation by sound

Front

• echolocation - bats, shrews, whales, dolphins • development of sonar

Back

carnivorous plants

Front

• low nutrient environments • obtain N from other organisms • modified leaves • digestive enzymes

Back

parent material

Front

• soil composition • chemistry

Back

Other senses

Front

• cold, warmth, vibration, pain

Back

3 "ingredients"

Front

• solids - rocks, sand, silt, humus • pore spaces • organisms

Back

Gustation = taste

Front

• fish • arthropods • land vertebrates - tongue > papillae, taste buds • physical & psychological factors

Back

Invertebrates

Front

• fish - otoliths - calcium carbonate crystals - lateral line system - hair cells

Back

Bone - Special connective tissue

Front

• protects inner organs & provides support • lamellae - matrix of calcium phosphate crystals • osteocytes = bone cells - lacunae - canaliculi - Haversion canals > blood vessels

Back

Four phyla w/ vision

Front

• annelids • mollusks • arthropods • chordates

Back

Hearing

Front

detection of sound waves

Back

soil horizons

Front

• A horizon - topsoil • B horizon - subsoil • C horizon - parent material

Back

Receptors or sensory cells

Front

• external & internal • stimulus-gated ion channels - depolarization > threshold level = action potential - rising sensory stimulus > rising depolarization = more action potentials

Back

topsoil

Front

• mineral particles • humus • organisms • most plant roots are here

Back

• inner ear - cochlea - organ of Corti - basilar membrane - hair cells >> stereocilia - sensory neurons - brain

Front

...

Back

soil

Front

highly weathered out layer of the earth's crust

Back

Ear structure of land vertebrates

Front

• outer ear - auditory canal

Back

• most mammals color blind - except primates (see fruits)

Front

...

Back

Hydrostatic skeletons

Front

• fluid-filled cavity (coelom) • circular & longitudinal muscle - earthworms - move by contractions of muscles - cephalopods - fluid ejection/jetting

Back

• bony fishes, amphibians, some birds & some insects - good color vision - some in more colors than we see

Front

...

Back

• cones - color vision - purely diurnal animals - only cones > blind at night

Front

...

Back

• middle ear - tympanic membrane - ossicles - malleus (hammer) - incus (anvil) - stapes (stirrup) - oval window

Front

...

Back

symbiotic relationship w/ fungus

Front

• mycorrhizae - endomycorrhizae (arbuscular) - glomeromycota - 90% of vascular plants - ectomycorrhizae - basidiomycota / trees • extend surface area - uptake of H2O, P, micronutrients

Back

• cilium

Front

...

Back

Endoskeletons

Front

• cartilage/bone - framework - muscle attachment - protection of internal organs

Back

Invertebrates

Front

flatworms eyespot

Back

Five senses

Front

• vision • hearing • taste • olfaction • touch

Back

Kinds of receptors

Front

• mechanoreceptors • chemoreceptors • electromagnetic receptors • thermoreceptors • pain receptors

Back

Relaxed muscles

Front

• myosin-binding sites blocked by tropomyosin - held in place by troponin • regulated by Ca2+ levels in the muscle fiber cytoplasm - low Ca2+ levels - tropomyosin inhibits across-bridges - high Ca2+ levels, tropomyosin is displaced, allowing the formation of actin-myosin cross-bridges

Back

phytoremediation

Front

• phytodegradation • phytovolatization • phytoaccumulation

Back

common mineral deficiencies

Front

...

Back

Motor neurons conduct nerve impulses

Front

• Acetylcholine released - birds to receptors on muscle fibers - ion channels open & Na+ enters - membrane depolarizes - Ca++ real eased from sarcoplasmic reticulum

Back

human impacts on soils

Front

• agriculture - draining of wetlands - buffer / purification - topsoil loss = erosion - dust bowl - nutrient depletion - pollution - irrigation - subsidence / salinization / dewatering • sustainable agriculture - minimize soil loss&nutrient depletion - conservation tillage - windbreaks - nutrient replacement - green manure - legume cover crop - organic fertilizers - animal manure / fish meal / compost

Back

Diversity of sensory experiences

Front

• Pit viper snakes - heat-detecting pit organs • Chondrichthyes - Ampullae of Lorenzini, electrical currents • magnetic field lines - eels, sharks, bees and many birds

Back

Capture of light energy

Front

photoreceptors

Back

Section 3

(50 cards)

Preformation

Front

Belief that fertilized sperm/egg contained tiny individuals

Back

Sliding filament model of muscle contraction

Front

• Nerve impulse cause release of Ca++ • Ca++ binds to troponin - tropomyosin displaced & exposes receptors • molecular cross-bridges form b/ myosin and actin - cross-bridge snap rapidly back-n-forth attaching and releasing to pull filaments past each other - sarcomeres shorten • ATP breaks cross-bridges

Back

nicotine

Front

• plant defense compound • binds to receptors - decrease in # of receptors - decrease in acetylcholine, dopamine, & serotonin • severe withdrawal symptoms

Back

hindbrain

Front

• cerebellum & pons - movement / balance • medulla oblongata - autonomic nervous system

Back

Stages of animal development

Front

• fertilization • cleavage - blastula • gastrulation - cell differentiation &determination - developmental fates / morphogens • organogenesis

Back

Skeletal muscle

Front

• muscle fiers = cells - miyfibril - myosin filaments - actin filaments - sarcomere

Back

development

Front

• zygote - mitosis / blastulation • blastula - gastrulation - blastopore - protostome / deuterostome

Back

two cell types

Front

• neurons - nerve cell body - dendrites - receive stimuli / conduct impulses toward the NCB - Axon - conducts impulses away from NCB • Neuroglia - support, insulate & protect

Back

organogenesis

Front

formation of organs in their proper locations • developmental fate • cell determination • morphogens - diffusible signal molecules - direct activation / repression of genes • a cells's fate can be established in two ways - morphogens from mother - morphogens from embryo

Back

blastocyst - gastrulation

Front

• trophoblast - placenta • inner cell mass - embryo

Back

chemical impulse transmission presynaptic cells - transmit impulses

Front

• synaptic vesicles - neurotransmitters • synapses • postsynaptic cells - receives impulses - receptor proteins

Back

nerve poisons

Front

• organophosphate insecticides - permanently bind to acetylcholinesterase • carbamates • botulinum toxin - botox

Back

negative charge of resting potential (-70 mV) maintained by

Front

• sodium-potassium pump - require ATP • lon leakage channels

Back

nervous system organization - irritability

Front

• sensory receptors - detect stimulus • sensory neurons - carry impulses to brain • interneurons - brain & spinal cord • motor neurons - carry impulses away from brain • motor effectors - respond to stimulus - muscles or glands

Back

Sensory information is perceived and conveyed to the CNS in a four-step process

Front

• stimulus -> • transduction of stimulus into receptor potential in sensory receptor -> • transmission of action potential in sensory neuron -> • interpretation of stimulus in central nervous system

Back

electrical impulse transmission - resting membrane potential -70 mV

Front

• inside the neuron - low Na+, low Cl-, high K+ • outside of neuron - high Na+, high Cl-, low K+

Back

gastrulation

Front

process involving a complex series of cell shape changes and cell movements in the blastula - three primary germ layers • ectoderm - outer layer / nervous and sensory, adrenal medulla / pituitary gland / jaws and teeth / germ cells • mesoderm - middle layer • endoderm - inner layer - digestive trat, organs, epithelia linning

Back

developmental modularity - homeotic genes

Front

• direct formation of body plans • homeotic (Hom) genes of fruit flies control segmentation - mutations result in big changes • homeobox-containing (Hox) genes occur in mammals

Back

graded potentials

Front

chemically-gated ion channels • triggered by neurotransmitters attaching to receptor proteins embedded within the membrane • causes opening of ion channels • Na+ pours into the cell • changes in membrane potential • small transient changes • depolarization - positive • hyperpolarization - more negative • summation - reinforce / negate

Back

block polyspermy

Front

• fertilization envelope • enzymes remove sperm receptors • egg activation - Ca++ • fusion of nuclei - form zygote diploid nucleus

Back

nervous systems

Front

• porifera - lack nerves • cnidarians - nerve net • platyhelminthes - associative area • annelids - bilateral brain • molluscs - cephalopods - complex brain • insects - lobed brain / ventral nerve cord with ganglia

Back

neurotransmitter actions terminated

Front

• enzymatic cleavage - acetylcholinesterase (degrading acetylcholine) • reuptake by neuron - transport proteins • uptake by glial cell

Back

Epigenesis

Front

Fertilized egg contains the necessary material to be somehow assembled

Back

• cones = photopsins - retinal - amino acid > we have blue, green, red cones > red/green color blind...

Front

...

Back

teratogens

Front

• developmental abnormalities - alcohol - Retinoic acid - Thalidomide - anti-nauseant - endocrine disrupters - DES / Phytoestrogens - infective agents - Syphilis / Toxoplasmosis

Back

drug addiction

Front

• drugs mimic neurotransmitters • habituation - receptor numbers decreased - remediate the action • cocaine - brain's "pleasure pathways" - binds dopamine transporters

Back

cleavage & the blastula

Front

• rapid division of the zygote into a larger and larger number of smaller and smaller cells - blastomeres - blastula - blastocoel

Back

peripheral nervous system

Front

...

Back

sensory (afferent) & motor (efferent) neurons

Front

• nerves - bundles of myelinated axons • ganglion - aggregations of NCBs • counterbalance

Back

midbrain

Front

• arousal • sleep • visual & auditory reflexes

Back

cells of one embryo implanted into the future ventral region of another

Front

• development of two notochords • a complete set of dorsal axial structures

Back

• outer segment - flattened disks - photopigments - rods = rhodopsin - opsin - retinal > Vit. A from carotene, a plant pigment

Front

...

Back

neuroglial cells

Front

• Myelin sheath • Schwann cells in PNS • oligodendrocytes in CNS - Myelinated axons = white matter - dendrites/cell bodies = grey matter • nodes of Ranvier - acceleration of impulses • astrocytes in CNS - nutrient & ion reservoirs - help w/ injuries • Microglia - immune cells

Back

gastrulation in a sea urchin

Front

...

Back

dominant forebrain

Front

cerebrum • correlation, association, & learning • frontal / temporal / parietal / occipital

Back

(spiral vs. radial / determinant phase vs. indeterminate phase)

Front

...

Back

action potentials

Front

• depolarization - threshold potential (-55mV) • separate all-or-none events • caused by voltage-gated ion channels - Na+ channels / K+ channels

Back

morphogen

Front

stimulate development of organs

Back

sperm penetration

Front

• sperm acrosome - digestive enzymes • membrane fusion - sperm nucleus enters into egg's cytoplasm - triggers egg metabolism

Back

two types of nerve impulses

Front

• graded potentials • action potentials

Back

fertilization

Front

• union of male and female gametes • events - sperm penetration - block polyspermy - egg activation - fusion of nulcei

Back

Amniotes

Front

• Extraembryonic membranes - adaptation to life on dry land 1 amnion - encloses amniotic fluid / cushions and protects 2 chorion - protective outer layer in reptiles / contributes to placenta in mammals 3 yolk sac - food sources / not in mammals 4 allantois - gas exchange / Contributes blood vessels to the developing umbilical cord in mammals

Back

vertebrates

Front

• forebrain - smell • midbrain - vision • hindbrain - hearing / balance

Back

nervous system is divided into

Front

• peripheral nervous system - communication of signal from and back to the rest of body • central nervous system - integration & interpretation of input

Back

forebrain

Front

• thalamus - integration & relay of sensory information • hypothalamus - regulates body temperature, water balance, appetite and thirst - produces neurohormones - regulation of reproductive function - sexual and emotional behavior • hippocampus - learning / memory • amygdala - emotions & aggression

Back

Haeckel - ontongeny recapitulates phylogeny

Front

...

Back

neural crest cells

Front

• pluripotent - teeth bones/cartilage, neurons, sensory cells, skin cells

Back

major neurotransmitters

Front

...

Back

vertebrate axis formation

Front

• organizer cells - release morphogens - developmental fates - cell determination and differentiation

Back

nervous system disorders

Front

• schizophrenia • depression • bipolar • Alzheimer's • Parkinson's

Back

Section 4

(50 cards)

also grouped into -constituitive defenses [always in place] -induced defenses [produced in response to attack]

Front

...

Back

Phylum Coniferophyta

Front

• Pines, spruces, firs, cedars, larch, cypress, redwoods, sequoia • evergreen (mostly) • economically important

Back

Gymnosperms (naked seeds)

Front

• Cycads - motile sperm • Ginkgo - Ginko biloba - motile sperm - dioecious gymnosperm • Gnetophytes - Gymnosperm w/ vessels • Conifers

Back

photomorphogenesis

Front

light controlled morphological changes flowering, shoot elongation

Back

reversible changes in turgor pressure

Front

• snapping of Venus flytrap leaves • Mimosa pudica leaves closing • water leaving turgid cells cause plant movement • water entering a limp cell causes movement

Back

ethylene

Front

• suppresses stem and root elongation • controls leaf, lower and fruit abscission - hastens fruit ripening [transgenic tomatoes]

Back

thigmotropism

Front

directional growth of a plant in response to contact [curling of tendrils around objects]

Back

Pines

Front

• Clustered tough needlelike leaves - thick cuticle and recessed stomata • resin - defense

Back

life stage comparison

Front

...

Back

thigmomorphogenesis

Front

permanent form change in response to mechanical stresses [constant wind]

Back

gibberellins

Front

• shoot elongation - restores normal growth and development to dwarf mutants / comercial use [large grape] • important in seed germination - enzyme production [conversion of starch to sugar]

Back

etiolation

Front

morphological adaptations for growing in darkness

Back

gravity perceived via amyloplasts

Front

• columella cells in root cap • starch sheath cells in stem

Back

plant defenses - two general groups

Front

• morphological • chemical

Back

third trimester

Front

• growth and organ maturation • major nerve tracts - neurons formed - continuing for months after birth

Back

circadian rhythms

Front

• common among eukaryotes • day-night cycles [leaf and petal movements / stomatal opening / fragrance release] • four characteristics 1. continue in absence of external inputs 2. are 24 hours in duration 3. can be reset or entrained 4. compensates for differences in temperature

Back

gynoecium (female)

Front

• carpels - stigma - style - ovary - ovule (contains female gametophyte) - egg

Back

turgor movement by circadium rhythm

Front

• Four o'clocks & primrose • Nyctinastic movement [maximize photosynthesis during the day, reduce water loss at night]

Back

predation & coevolution

Front

coevolutionary arms race • plant evolves defense • survives and passes on genes • herbivore experiences mutation that allows it to breach defense - gives exclusive access=preferential survival-passes on genes

Back

eudicots (true dicots)

Front

• trees, shrubs, peas, snapdragons, etc • flowers to attract insect pollinators

Back

water & temperature responses - dormancy of deciduous plants

Front

• often begins with leaf abscission - reduction of cytokinins and auxin - abscission zone - protective layer [cells with suberin] -separation layer

Back

Angiosperm life cycle

Front

• ovary - ovule - egg / polar nuclei • pollination • anther - pollen • sperm tube - 2 sperms • double fertilization • endosperm

Back

266 days - 9 months first trimester

Front

• first month - cleavage - 30 hrs - blastocyst - trophoblast cells - implantation - chorion forms placenta - human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) - maintains endometrium - gastrulation 2nd wk - organogenesis 4th wk - embryo is 5 mm long (pencil eraser) • second month - embryo looks human - major organs • third month (9 wks) - embryo - fetus - nervous system - hCG declines

Back

breach of exterior defenses

Front

• mechanical wounds • physical penetration • stomata - fungal spore lands near stoma - germinates forms adhesion pad - hyphae grow through cell walls - differentiate into haustoria

Back

seed plant gametophytes

Front

• male - pollen grains - sperms • dispersed by wind/water - free from water • female - ovule - egg - naked or enclosed w/in sporophyte tissue

Back

androecium (male)

Front

• stamens - filament - anther - pollen (contains male gametophyte) - sperm

Back

stem response to gravity

Front

• auxin accumulates on lower side • asymmetrical cell elongation • curvature of the stem upward

Back

phototropism

Front

directional growth responses to light - bending of growing stems to blue light • phototropin 1 - membrane receptor protein • absorbs blue light • conformational change • phosphate attaches • signaling pathway initiated • stem bends

Back

root response to gravity

Front

• lower cells less elongated • cells on upper side grow more rapidly • root grows downward

Back

seed germination

Front

• open canopy - increased red light stimulates • closed canopy - chlorophyll absorbs red light / far red passes through and inhibits • shoot elongation - stimulated by red light / lack of red light cause etiolation [pale slender shoot, energy diverted to elongation]

Back

monocots vs eudicots

Front

...

Back

cytokinins

Front

• promote cell division & differentiation, growth of lateral buds into branches, chloroplast development, bud formation • delays leaf aging and abscission • inhibits formation of lateral roots • crown gall tumor - induces increased production of cytokinines & auxin

Back

monocots

Front

• grasses, lilies, palms, irises, etc. • flowers and wind for pollination

Back

phytochrome

Front

• important light absorbing pigments • present in all plants • involved in plant growth responses - seed germination - shoot elongation - detection of spacing

Back

gravitropism

Front

response to gravity • shoots exhibit negative gravitropism • roots positive gravitropism

Back

pine reproduction

Front

• mostly monoecious • male cones form gametophytes - pollen grains - sperm • female pine cones form ovules - megaspore - gametophyte - egg - seeds contain zygote - developing embryo

Back

auxin

Front

• promotes cell elongation, cell division, bud dormancy, formation of adventitious & lateral roots • inhibits leaf abscission • produced in apical meristem • discovered in 1881 by Charles and Francis Darwin [experiments on phototropism]

Back

Angiosperms

Front

• basal angiosperms (Amborella trichopoda, Water lily, Star anise) • magnoliids • monocots • eudicots (true dicots)

Back

physical defenses

Front

dermal tissues = first line of defense • epidermis - cuticle [cutin/waxes], cell walls [cellulose/lignin], silica inclusions, trichomes, prickles, thorns [modified stems], spines [modified leaves], bark w/ suberin, casparian strip w/ suberin

Back

phytochrome exists in two interconvertible forms

Front

• Pr is the inactive form - absorb red light at 660 nm - converts to Pfr • Pfr is the active form - enter nucleus and cause gene transcription - absorbs far-red light at 730 nm and convert back to Pr

Back

second trimester

Front

body develops further

Back

abscisic acid

Front

• little evidence that it plays a role in abscission • promotes dormancy in seeds • induces formation of dormant winter buds • suppresses bud growth and elongation • promotes senescence • important in the opening and closing of stomata

Back

hormones

Front

• chemicals produced in one part of an organism and transported to another part where they cause a response

Back

birth

Front

• estrogen • uterus - prostaglandins - uterine contractions - oxytocin - posterior pituitary • positie feedback loop • neonate • placenta & associated membrane

Back

five derived traits of seed plants

Front

1. reduced gametophytes 2.heterospory 3.ovules 4. pollen 5. seeds

Back

lactation

Front

• progesterone • estrogen • prolactin • oxytocin • colostrum - first milk - nutrients / maternal antibodies

Back

co-evolution

Front

Paul Ehrlich & Peter Raven • adaptive changes in organisms through selective pressures of closely associated organisms

Back

seeds

Front

• protect embryos • stored food source • are easily dispersed • introduces a dormant phase in the life cycle

Back

light triggered turgor movement

Front

sunflower following sun - maximizes photosynthesis

Back

angiosperm importance

Front

• food - corn, rice, wheat, potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes • wood - fuel, construction • medicine • threats = humans: habitat loss / invasive species

Back

Section 5

(50 cards)

evidence of evolution of plants from green algae

Front

1.rings of cellulose-synthesizing proteins 2.peroxisome enzymes 3.structure of flagellated sperm 4.formation of a phragmoplast

Back

Phylum Chlorophyta

Front

flagellated reproduce asexually and sexually can be: unicellular, colonial, multicellular

Back

nuclei

Front

monokaryotic / dikaryotic / homokaryotic / heteokaryotic (exchange)

Back

chemical defenses - secondary metabolites

Front

compounds not necessary for plant life • toxins - cyanide / caffeine / nicotine • growth regulators - juvenile hormone / phytoestrogens • digestion inhibitors - tannins [binds proteins] • repellents - oils [menthol]

Back

ferns

Front

•conspicuous sporophyte •much smaller gametophyte •both photosynthetic •rhizomes •fronds •sori

Back

humans harmed chemicals

Front

cyanide phytoestrogens

Back

Chlamydomonas

Front

unicellular freshwater flagellate eyespot sexual paring of gametes - zygospore

Back

Horsetails

Front

•Ribbed, jointed photosynthetic stems •branching rhizomes with roots at nodes

Back

Phylum Charophyta

Front

sister group to land plants form freshwater mats haplontic

Back

hornworts

Front

sporophyte - photosynthetic, stomata cells have a single large chloroplast

Back

mosses - Phylum Bryophyta

Front

•gametophytes small, leaf-like structures •rhizoids •stomata? •multicellular haploid gametophyte - archegonia/antheridia - dominant •multicellular diploid sporophyte - spores

Back

cuticle

Front

wax and other polymers

Back

non-vascular plants - bryophytes

Front

•plants that do not have an extensive transport system •closest living descendants of first land plants -reproduction tied to water -flagellated sperm •mosses (some have simple vascular tissue) hornworts liverworts •not monophyletic group •lacking roots and true leaves •gametophytes dominant & photosynthetic -sporophyte often dependent on gametophyte

Back

viridiplantae

Front

green plants green algae and land plants chlorophyta / streptophyta (charophyta / land plants)

Back

Whisk ferns

Front

•evenly forking photosynthetic stems •no leaves or roots •unique gametophytes •symbiotic with fungi •develop elements of vascular tissue

Back

alternation of generations

Front

The life cycles of all land plants alternate between two generations of multicellular organisms: gametophytes and sporophytes.

Back

derived traits of land plants

Front

1.alternation of generations (multicellular, dependent embryos) - haplodiplontic 2.walled spores produced in sporangia 3.multicellular gametangia - archegonia (female) / antheridia (male) flagellated sperm 4.apical meristems

Back

animals that protect plants

Front

• coevolution [acacia trees & ants / parasitoid wasps, caterpillars & leaves]

Back

Tracheophyte plants

Front

•dominant vertical sporophytes - simple reduced gametophytes •vascular tissues - water and food-conducting - xylem-water and mineral from roots - phloem-synthesized food down from leaves

Back

liverworts

Front

morphology variable can undergo asexual reproduction

Back

seedless vascular plants

Front

lycophytes (club mosses and their relatives) pterophytes (ferns and their relatives) paraphylatic

Back

sporangia

Front

The sporophyte has multicellular organs called sporangia that produce the spores.

Back

Phylum Lycophyta

Front

club mosses - relict species resemble true mosses

Back

hypae

Front

increase surface area take in nutrient continuous and filled with cytoplasm cells separated by septae

Back

Phylum Rhodophyta

Front

red algae lack flagella phycobilisomes primary endosymbiosis - cyanobacterium/origin source of controversy edible - nori

Back

Glomeromycetes

Front

obligate mutualistic symbionts - 90% of plants have it facilitated transition to land / root systems arbuscular mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae) which penetrate plant cell walls

Back

Microsporidia

Front

obligate intracellular parasites (anthropods/fish) no mitochondria - derived trait, now in genome diplomonads

Back

Zygomycetes

Front

lack speta - coenocytic fungi grow fast on food and fruit black bread mold Rhizopus - bread mold not monophyletic sexual reproduction - diploid zygospore asexual reproduction is common - haploid spores

Back

threats to plants

Front

• virus & viroids • plant predators: bacteria/fungi/nematodes/herbivores/other plants • non-native species

Back

Chytrids

Front

motile flagellated zoospores haplodiplontic life cycle disease agents - plant pathogens

Back

Phylum Pterophyta

Front

Ferns Horsetail ferns Whisk ferns

Back

Volvox

Front

colonial freshwater flagellate - vegetative cells/reproductive cells (gametes) asexual reproduction - daughter cells

Back

defining fungi

Front

- externally digesting heteotrophs - a) secrete digestive enzymes to the environment b) absorb nutrients - hyphae / mycelim - cell walls are strengthened by chitin - nuclear mitosis a) spindle plaques (inside nucleus)

Back

Ulva (sea lettuce)

Front

multicellular marine chlorophyte haplodiplontic life cycle - multicellular gametophyte & sporophyte isomorphic

Back

amphibian declines - African clawed from used for products of pregnancy test help ruminants to break down the plant matter

Front

...

Back

grade

Front

a collection of organisms that share a key biological feature not necessarily share the same ancestry

Back

Chytrid groups

Front

Chytridiomycota Blastocladiomycota Neacallimastigomycota - symbionts, cellulose digestion, bio-fuels

Back

compare algae life cycles

Front

brown algae are haplodiplontic & heteromorphic red and green algae are haplodiplontic & isomorphic

Back

mycorrhizae

Front

symbiotic associations between plants and fungi plant - absorb nutrient more efficiently

Back

vascular tissue

Front

cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body

Back

vascular plants

Front

most present-day plants have a complex vascular tissue system 93% of extant plant species

Back

gametangia

Front

multicellular organ which produces gametes. female gametangia - archegonia - egg male gametangia - antheridia - sperm

Back

response to invaders - induced defenses

Front

• conserve energy resources • local or systemic - throughout plant - nearby plants • systemin • proteinase inhibitors - bind to herbivore's digestive enzymes • hypersensitive response - rapid cell death / phytoalexins [antimicrobial agents] - hydrogen peroxide & nitric oxide • systemic acquired resistance (SAR) - salicylic acid / jasmonic acid / acquired resistance

Back

Viridiplantae

Front

Streptophyta (embryophytes) - land plants all land plants from an algal ancestor land plants from a Charale-like ancestor

Back

apical meristems

Front

plant's activity localized regions of cell division at the tips of roots and shoots

Back

beneficial chemicals

Front

phytoestrogens taxol quinine [malaria] morphine salicylic acid [willow bark]

Back

mycelium

Front

interwoven mass formed by hyphae

Back

rea algae life cycle

Front

haplodiplontic isomorphic = morphologically identical

Back

adaptations to terrestrial life

Front

waxy cuticle, stomata & tracheids - protection from dessication leaves dominant vertical diploid generation = sporophyte roots (early colonization facilitated by mycorrhizae)

Back

sporocyte

Front

diploid cells within a sporangium (spore mother cells), which undergo meiosis and generate the haploid spores

Back

Section 6

(32 cards)

perennial plants

Front

• indefinite number of growth • herbaceous or woody • deciduous plant vs evergreen plants

Back

Ascomycota

Front

sac fungi some are carnivores yeast, molds, morels, cup fungi, truffles, tree pathogens penicillin - antibiotic

Back

Deuteromycetes

Front

imperfect fungi as sexual reproduction is not observed not monophyletic heterokaryotic hyphae - parasexuality (not real sexual) - exchange portions of chromosomes

Back

wind pollination

Front

• small, green, odorless flowers • usually dioecious - strategy that greatly promotes outcrossing • tremendous pollen output

Back

gymnosperm life cycle

Front

...

Back

gamete production - haplodiplontic

Front

• dominant diploid sporophyte - small dependent haploid gametophyte - androecium - pollen grains w/ male gametophyte - gynoecium - female gametophyte = embryo sac with haploid nuclei

Back

ecology of fungi

Front

important decomposers release C,N and P for plant uptake protect plants cellulose digestion in ruminants

Back

annual plants

Front

• one growing season • usually herbaceous

Back

pollination

Front

pollen reaching the stigma • self-pollination • cross-pollination or outcrossing • attraction of pollinators - nectar - fragrance / colors • coevolution of pollinators

Back

asexual reproduction

Front

• produces genetically identical individuals - only mitosis occurs - common in harsh environments varied forms - adventitious stems (plantlets) - runners or stolons /rhizomes - suckers - clones - modified leaves - plantlets

Back

biennial plants

Front

• two year life cycles - 1st yr - energy storage - 2nd yr - flowering

Back

Basidiomycota reproduction

Front

karyogamy occur in basidiocarp, basidia meiosis occur immediately to produce basidiospres primary mycelium is monokaryotic and homokaryotic secondary mycelium is dikaryotic and heterokaryotic

Back

morphogenesis

Front

development of an organism's body form • morphogens - chemicals that influence differentiation of nearby cells • mutations - aberrant embryo-like development of suspensor

Back

fruit

Front

mature ovaries • fleshy fruits - simple - drupes [single seed, hard inner layer/peach] - berries [multiple seeds/tomato, pepper, grape, kiwi] - pepo [berries with leathery rind / watermelon, cantaloupe, cucumber] - hesperidia [orange] - pomes [apple, pear] • fleshy fruits - compound - multiple [pineapple] - aggregate [grape, strawberry] • dry fruit [legumes, samara]

Back

seed morphology

Front

• seed coat • dormant embryo - cotyledon(s) / apical meristems / basic tissue systems • endosperm / cotyledons • development of ovary into a fruit

Back

structure of flower - complete flower 4 whorls

Front

• calyx - sepals • corolla - petals • androecium (male) - stamens - filament / anther • gynoecium (female) - carpels - ovary (ovule) - style -stigma

Back

Ascomycota reproduction

Front

sexual - asci form within the ascocarp karyogamy occurs within asci, and meiosis occur immediately to produce ascospores

Back

Basidiomycota

Front

club fungi Armillaria - soy product mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, shelf and jelly fungi plant pathogens - rust, smuts

Back

germination controlled by hormones

Front

• gibberellic acid - a-amylase - starch to sugars • abscisic acid - maintain dormancy

Back

embryogenesis

Front

• diploid zygote - mitotic cell division - two unequal daughter cells - small cell-embryo / large cell-suspensor [transports nutrients to embryo] - root-shoot axis forms - tissue systems arise - cotyledons form

Back

function of seeds

Front

1. provide for a dormant phase 2. protect young plant 3. provide food for embryo until it can produce its own 4. facilitate dispersal

Back

active immunity

Front

a form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens adaptive immunity immunity, resistance to a specific pathogen AIDS a syndrome caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that renders immune cells ineffective, permitting opportunistic infections, malignancies, and neurologic diseases to develop; transmitted sexually or through contaminated blood allergens substances that activate the immune system antibody any of a large variety of proteins normally present in the body or produced in response to an antigen which it neutralizes, thus producing an immune response antigen any substance (as a toxin or enzyme) that stimulates the production of antibodies antigen presentation The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell. antigen receptor For a B cell, the antigen receptor is its cell-surface immunoglobulin; for a T cell the antigen receptor is a rather similar molecule called the T-cell receptor. Each individual lymphocyte bears receptors of a single antigen specificity. antigen-presenting cell Cells that possess MHC II (B cells and macrophages) and are able to display bits of ingested antigen on their surface in order to activate T cells. See also "MHC" autoimmune disease any of a large group of diseases characterized by abnormal functioning of the immune system that causes your immune system to produce antibodies against your own tissues B cells Cells manufactured in the bone marrow that create antibodies for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses. Barrier defenses skin; mucous membranes; secretions cell-mediated immune response The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells. Clonal selection The process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. the selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen. complement system A group of blood proteins that bind non-specifically to the surface proteins of foreign cells (such as bacteria), ultimately leading to the destruction of the foreign cell - part of the innate immunity. cytokines chemicals released by T helper cells that stimulate B cells cytotoxic T cells T cells that can kill other cells. Almost all cytotoxic T cells are CD8 T cells. Cytotoxic T cells are important in host defense against viruses and other cytosolic pathogens, because they recognize and kill the infected cells. Dendritic cells specialized white blood cells that patrol the body searching for antigens that produce infections effector cells the muscle cells or gland cells that actually carry out the body's responses to stimuli. epitope a localized region on the surface of an antigen that is chemically recognized by antibodies; also called antigenic determinant heavy chains the larger of the two component polypeptides of an immunoglobulin molecule. Heavy chains come in a variety of heavy-chain classes or isotypes, each of which confers a distinctive effector function on the antibody molecule. helper T cell T cell with CD4 receptor that recognizes antigens on the surface of a virus-infected cell and secretes lymphokines that stimulate B cells and killer T cells histamine a regulating body substance released in excess during allergic reactions causing swelling and inflammation of tissues humoral immune response an immune response (chiefly against bacterial invasion) that is mediated by B cells Humoral response The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids. immune system a system (including the thymus and bone marrow and lymphoid tissues) that protects the body from foreign substances and pathogenic organisms by producing the immune response immunization process by which resistance to an infectious disease is induced immunodeficiency immunological disorder in which some part of the body's immune system is inadequate and resistance to infectious diseases is reduced immunoglobulin a class of proteins produced in lymph tissue in vertebrates and that function as antibodies in the immune response Immunoglobulin gene rearrangement the process whereby the immunoglobulin gene locus is rearranged in developing B cells in order to take on the mature configuration that is capable of producing a unique BCR or surface-bound immunoglobulin. inflammatory response nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection innate immunity General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, lysozyme, and complement. Interferons Antiviral proteins secreted by T cells Internal defenses when pathogens penetrate the physical and chemical barriers of the skin and mucous membranes, they encounter a second line of defense: internal antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation and fever light chains smaller of the two identical pairs of chains constituting immunoglobulin molecules; the bottom of the Y where it V's lymphocytes the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. Lysozyme an enzyme found in saliva and sweat and tears that destroys the cell walls of certain bacteria Macrophages Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream. mast cells a vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules that trigger the inflammatory response. memory cells B lymphocytes that do not become plasma cells but remain dormant until reactivated by the same antigen. MHC molecule A large set of cell surface antigens encoded by a family of genes. Foreign MHC markers trigger T-cell responses that may lead to the rejection of transplanted tissues and organs. monoclonal antibodies Antibodies produced by a single clone of B lymphocytes and that are therefore identical in structure and antigen specificity. natural killer cells Large, granular, cytotoxic lymphocytes that circulate in the blood. NK cells are important in innate immunity to viruses and other intracellular pathogens and also kill certain tumor cells. They are the cytotoxic cells in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC). Neutrophils A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease. passive immunity an impermanent form of acquired immunity in which antibodies against a disease are acquired naturally (as through the placenta to an unborn child) or artificially (as by injection of antiserum) phagocytosis process in which phagocytes engulf and digest microorganisms and cellular debris plasma cells Cells that develop from B cells and produce antibodies. primary immune response the initial immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag of several days secondary immune response The adaptive immune response provoked by a second exposure to an antigen. It differs from the primary response by starting sooner and building more quickly. T cells an immune system cell that coordinates the immune system and attacks many infected cells thymus a ductless glandular organ at the base of the neck that produces lymphocytes and aids in producing immunity Toll-like receptor Pattern recognition receptors on phagocytic cells. Bind pathogen associated molecular patterns. Apon binding, brings the antigen into cell and activates antigen presentation vaccination an injection that produces a mild form of a disease in order to help build up an immunity to it alimentary canal digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus ammonites Mollusc organisms like snails, clams, brachiopods, octopus, and squid. amoebocytes cells that move using pseudopods and perform different functions in different animals arachnids A member of a major arthropod group that includes spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites. All members have eight pairs of walking legs. arthropods invertebrates that have an external skeleton, a segmented body, and jointed leg attachments called appendages book lungs Organs of gas exchange in spiders, consisting of stacked plates contained in an internal chamber. Brachiopods lamp shells; resemble clams; dorsal and ventral shells chelicerae pair of mouthparts in chelicerates that contain fangs and are used to stab and paralyze prey chelicerates they have two body segments - cephalothorax and abdomen-, four pairs of walking legs, lack an antennae, and respire using book lungs, where spiracles are used for air to enter into. choanocytes specialized cell in sponges that uses a flagellum to move a steady current of water through the sponge Cnidarians invertebrates that have stinging cells and take food into a central body cavity cnidocytes stinging cell on a cnidarian's tentacle complete metamorphosis Insect development consisting of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult copepods minute shrimp-like crustaceans; often they are the most common zooplankton in estuarine waters crustaceans Any of various predominantly aquatic arthropods of the class Crustacea, including lobsters, crabs, shrimps, and barnacles, characteristically having a segmented body, a chitinous exoskeleton, and paired, jointed limbs. cuticle hard outer covering or case of certain organisms such as arthropods and turtles decapods Group of crustaceans that includes crabs and lobsters. The cuticle is reinforced, forming a dorsal shield called the carapce. echinoderms invertebrates with an internal skeleton and a system of fluid-filled tubes called a water vascular system Ectoprocts colonial animals that ressemble moss, encased by hard exoskeleton studed with pores from where the lophophore extend Ectoprocts colonial animals that ressemble moss, encased by hard exoskeleton studed with pores from where the lophophore extend eurypterids an extinct carnivorous cheliceriform also called a water scorpion exoskeleton the exterior protective or supporting structure or shell of many animals (especially invertebrates) including bony or horny parts such as nails or scales or hoofs gastrovascular cavity digestive chamber with a single opening, in which cnidarians, flatworms, and echinoderms digest food hermaphrodites animals that produce sperm and egg in the same body hexapods insects - 3 body regions (head:antannae, mandibles - thorax: 3 pairs of walking legs - abdomen: no appendages), most abundant and diverse, herbivores, detrivores, fluid drinkers, predators, scavengers, parasites incomplete metamorphosis Insect development consisting of three stages: egg, nymph, and adult invertebrates Animals without backbones isopods A member of one of the largest groups of crustaceans, which includes terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species. Among the terrestrial isopods are the pill bugs, or wood lice. Lophotrochozoans refers to animals in the taxa who either develop a lophophore or go through the trochophore larva stage mandibles mouthparts of arthropods mantle a protective layer of epidermis in mollusks or brachiopods that secretes a substance forming the shell mantle cavity A water-filled chamber that houses the gills, anus, and excretory pores of a mollusk medusa any of numerous usually marine and free-swimming coelenterates that constitute the sexually reproductive forms of hydrozoans and scyphozoans mesohyl a gelatinous region between the two layers of cells of a sponge molting process in which an arthropod sheds its exoskeleton and manufactures a larger one to take its place muscular foot part of a mollusks head-foot whose function is locomotion myriapods A terrestrial arthropod with many body segments and one or two pairs of legs per segment. millipedes and centipedes comprise the two classes of living myriapods. nematocysts small capsules that contain a toxin which is injected into prey or predators open circulatory system A circulatory system that allows the blood to flow out of the blood vessels and into various body cavities so that the cells are in direct contact with the blood osculum A large opening on a sponge through which filtered water is expelled parthenogenesis development of an egg without fertilization planarians A free-living flatworm found in unpolluted ponds and streams. Polyps cnidarians, like sea anemones, that do not move as much at all protonephridia an excretory system, such as the flame bulb system of flatworms, consisting of a network of tubules lacking internal openings radula tongue-shaped structure used for feeding by snails and slugs spongocoel large central cavity of the sponge suspension feeders an animal that extracts food particles suspended in the surrounding water torsion In gastropods, a developmental process in which the visceral mass rotates up to 180°, causing the animal's anus and mantle cavity to be positioned above its head. tube feet branches of water vascular system that function in locomotion, feeding and respiration visceral mass area beneath the mantle of a mollusk that contains the internal organs water vascular system system of internal tubes in echinoderms that carries out essential functions such as feeding, respiration, circulation, and movement Adrenal glands a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. adrenocorticotropic hormone a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex androgens Support sperm formation; development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics anterior pituitary produces and secretes several peptide hormones that regulate many physiological processes including stress, growth, and reproduction antidiuretic hormone hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland to prevent the kidneys from expelling too much water autocrine signaling cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves secrete calcitonin thyroid hormone that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma and inhibit resorption of bone catecholamines hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response corticosteroids Used medically as an anit-inflammatory agent diabetes mellitus condition that occurs when the pancreas produces too little insulin, resulting in an increase in the level of blood glucose ecdysteroid A steroid hormone, secreted by the prothoracic glands, that triggers molting in arthropods endocrine glands glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream endocrine signaling specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body endocrine system the system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity epinephrine adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster estradiol The chief estrogen, females produce more than males, develops and maintains female secondary sex characteristics, important roles in menstruation and pregnancy Estrogens stimulate uterine lining growth; development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics follicle-stimulating hormone Stimulates production of ova and sperm glucagon The antagonist of insulin. Its release is stimulated by low blood glucose levels. It stimulates the liver, its primary target organ, to break down its glycogen stores to glucose and subsequently to release glucose to the blood. glucocorticoids helps body resist long-term stressors; increases blood glucose levels; controls effects of inflammation from edema Gonads the endocrine glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual characteristics and reproductive processes; ovaries in females and testes in males. growth factors stimulate the growth and division of cells Growth hormone A hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body. Growth hormone stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents, and increases cell turnover rate in adults. hormone the secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion insulin Hormone produced by the pancreas that is released when stimulated by elevated glucose levels. This hormone decreases blood sugar levels by accelerating the transport of glucose into the body cells where it is oxidized for energy or converted to glycogen or fat for storage. local regulators A chemical messenger that influences cells in the vicinity. luteinizing hormone A protein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary. It stimulates pigment production in the skin. melatonin hormone released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark Mineralocorticoids One of the major groups of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex. It regulates water and electrolyte balance in extracellular flid, mainly by regulatind sodium reabsorption by the kidney tubules. Chiefly aldosterone. negative feedback a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus nervous system the sensory and control apparatus consisting of a network of nerve cells neuroendocrine signaling neurohormones diffuse into the bloodstream and trigger responses in target cells anywhere in the body neurohormones secreted by specialized cells in the brain. they are able to affect cells throughout the body neurotransmitters chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons nitric oxide gas released by many small neurons; alters blood flow as well as neuronal activity norepinephrine neurotransmitter that is involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight system (also mood, sleep, and learning) oxytocin induces contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth and causes the mammary glands to eject milk during nursing pancreas gland that secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, where it mixes with bile to digest food paracrine signaling short distance signalling; signal generated by one cell and interacts with receptors on neighbouring cells, transported by diffusion through interstitial fluid Parathyroid glands there are four and they are embedded in the surface of the thyroid, function in the homeostasis of calcium ions. They secrete Parathyroid hormone (PTH), which raises blood levels of calcium and thus has an effect opposite to that of the thyroid hormone calcitonin. parathyroid hormone controls the amount of calcium and phosphorus in the blood pheromones Chemicals secreted by animal species that influence the behavior of other animals of the same species Pineal gland located in the center of the brain, functioning to secrete melatonin and serotonin pituitary gland the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands positive feedback A physiological control mechanism in which a change in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify the change. posterior pituitary This part of the pituitary does not produce hormones, but stores and releases oxytocin and ADH. progesterone A hormone produced by the ovaries which acts with estrogen to bring about the menstral cycle. progestins female hormones generated in the ovaries prolactin hormone responsible for milk production prostaglandins A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more. signal transduction triggering a chain reaction of other proteins which relay the signal to the specific acting molecule synaptic signaling electrical signal along a nerve cell releases chemical signal in form of neurotransmitters and stimulates a cell across synapse testosterone the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty thyroid glands large gland in the front of the neck, it secretes hormones (thyroxin, calcetonin) which regulate growth and metabolism, endocrine system thyroxine Hormone secreted from the thyroid gland that promotes growth and development; increases metabolic rate in cells T4 Triiodothyronine hormone produced in the thyroid that helps regulate metabolism (T3) tropic hormones hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones acclimatization Physiological adjustment to a change in an environmental factor Adipose tissue a kind of body tissue containing stored fat that serves as a source of energy anatomy the branch of morphology that deals with the structure of animals basal metabolic rate the rate at which heat is produced by an individual in a resting state bioenergetics the study of how energy flows through living organisms blood fluid connective tissue of the circulatory system; consists of blood cells and plasma bone rigid connective tissue that makes up the skeleton of vertebrates Cardiac muscle Striated, involuntary muscle found only in the heart cartilage strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone circadian rhythm the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. conformer an organism that does not regulate its internal environment Connective tissue tissue that holds organs in place and binds different parts of the body together countercurrent exchange the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss. ectothermic lacking an internal mechanism for regulating body heat endothermic Organisms with bodies that are warmed by heat generated by metabolism. This heat is usually used to maintain a relatively stable body temperature higher than that of the external environment. epithelial tissues form a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body fibroblasts connective tissue cells that produce fibrous components of extracellular matrix like collagen and elastin glial cells cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons Hibernation cessation from or slowing of activity during the winter homeostasis metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes hormones chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another hypothalamus a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion integumentary system the organ system that forms a protective covering on the outside of the body interstitial fluid liquid found between the cells of the body that provides much of the liquid environment of the body ligaments tissue that connects bone to bone macrophages Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream. metabolic rate The rate at which the body burns calories to produce energy. muscle tissue A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move. negative feedback A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation. Nervous tissue A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body. neurons cell that carries messages throughout the nervous system organ system group of organs that work together to perform a specific function organs group of tissues that work together to perform closely realated functions physiology the branch of the biological sciences dealing with the functioning of organisms plasma colorless watery fluid of blood and lymph containing no cells and in which erythrocytes and leukocytes and platelets are suspended positive feedback mechanism of homeostasis feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output regulator an organism that uses energy to control its internal environment response a bodily process occurring due to the effect of some foregoing stimulus or agent sensor in homeostasis, a receptor that detects a stimulus set point a level that the body works to maintain skeletal muscle a muscle that is connected at either or both ends to a bone and so move parts of the skeleton Smooth muscle a muscle that contracts without conscious control and found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestine and bladder and blood vessels (excluding the heart) standard metabolic rate The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, and nonstressed ectotherm. stimulus a signal to which an organism responds tendons tissue that connects muscle to bone Thermoregulation the maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently. tissues groups of similar cells that perform a specific function in an organism Torpor inactivity resulting from torpidity and lack of vigor or energy absorption the process of absorbing nutrients into the body after digestion alimentary canal digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus amylase enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in starches appendix A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity. bile a substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles bolus A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food Carnivores Consumers that eat only animals cecum the cavity in which the large intestine begins and into which the ileum opens chylomicrons fat droplets covered in protein that diffuse into capillaries in small intestine chyme a semiliquid mass of partially digested food that passes from the stomach through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum colon portions of the large intestine extending from the cecum to the rectum; identified by direction or shape digestion the organic process by which food is converted into substances that can be absorbed into the body duodenum first part of small intestines, most digestion takes place, chemicals released from liver, gall bladder, and pancreas Elimination the bodily process of discharging waste matter esophagus the passage between the pharynx and the stomach essential amino acids Amino acids that are needed, but cannot be made by the body; they must be eaten in foods essential fatty acids fats needed by the body that must be consumed in the diet because the human body cannot manufacture them essential nutrients substances the body requires for normal growth and health but cannot manufacture in sufficient amounts: they must be obtained in the diet. feces undigested food material and other waste products that exit the body through the anus Filter feeders organism that takes in water to filter out the food and then releases the extra water (clam, oysters, sponge) Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host gallbladder a muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion gastric juice digestive secretions of the stomach glands consisting chiefly of hydrochloric acid and mucin and the enzymes pepsin and rennin and lipase gastrovascular cavity digestive chamber with a single opening, in which cnidarians, flatworms, and echinoderms digest food hepatic portal vein A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system. Herbivores an organism that eats only plants. ingestion the process of taking food into the body through the mouth (as by eating) lacteal any of the lymphatic vessels that convey chyle from the small intestine to the thoracic duct large intestine the last section of the digestive system, where water is absorbed from food and the remaining material is eliminated from the body leptin hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used liver organ that makes bile to break down fats; also filters poisons and drugs out of the blood microvilli Tiny hair-like projections of the cytoplasmic membrane located only in the small intestine to facilitate absorption by increasing surface area. minerals substances that the body cannot manufacture but that are needed for forming healthy bones and teeth and regulating many vital body processes mucus protective secretion of the mucous membranes nutrition a source of materials to nourish the body omnivores an organism that eats both plants and animals. oral cavity cavity that receives food for digestion pancreas gland that secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, where it mixes with bile to digest food pepsin an enzyme produced in the stomach that splits proteins into peptones pepsinogen precursor of pepsin, The inactive form of pepsin that is first secreted by specialized (chief) cells located in gastric pits of the stomach. peristalsis the process of wave-like muscle contractions of the alimentary tract that moves food along pharynx throat; passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx protease any enzyme that catalyzes the splitting of proteins into smaller peptide fractions and amino acids by a process known as proteolysis rectum The last part of the digestive tract, through which stools are eliminated ruminants An animal, such as a cow or sheep, with an elaborate, multicompartmentalized stomach specialized for an herbivorous diet. salivary glands three pairs of exocrine glands in the mouth that secrete saliva; the parotid, submandibular (submaxillary), and sublingual glands small intestine digestive organ in which most chemical digestion takes place, the longest part of the alimentary canal sphincters ringlike valves of muscular layer of the digestive tube that close off the tube like drawstrings, regulating the passage of material between chambers of the canal stomach an enlarged and muscular saclike organ of the alimentary canal Substrate feeders An organism that lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food suspension feeders An aquatic animal, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water villi Tiny finger-shaped structures that cover the inner surface of the small intestine and provide a large surface area through which digested food is absorbed Vitamins Essential nutrients that do not yield energy, but that are required for growth and proper functioning of the body. acoelomates A solid-bodied animal lacking a cavity between the gut and outer body wall. anterior located in front or forward archenteron The endoderm-lined cavity, formed during the gastrulation process, that develops into the digestive tract of an animal. bilateral symmetry the property of being symmetrical about a vertical plane bilaterians member of a clade of animals with bilateral symmetry and three germ layers. blastopore The opening of the archenteron in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes blastula The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development body cavity A fluid-containing space between the digestive tract and the body wall. body plan In animals, a set of morphological and developmental traits that are integrated into a functional whole—the living animal. Cambrian explosion A burst of evolutionary origins when most of the major body plans of animals appeared in a relatively brief time in geologic history; recorded in the fossil record about 545 to 525 million years ago. cephalization concentration of sense organs and nerve cells at the front of an animal's body cleavage a succession of mitotic cell divisions without cell growth between the divisions coelom a cavity in the mesoderm of an embryo that gives rise in humans to the pleural cavity and pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity coelomates An animal that possesses a true coelom (a body cavity lined by tissue completely derived from mesoderm). determinate cleavage A type of embryonic development in protostomes that rigidly casts the developmental fate of each embryonic cell very early. deuterostome animal whose anus is formed from the blastopore of a blastula diploblastic Having two germ layers. dorsal Pertaining to the back ecdysozoans Member of a group of animal phyla identified as a clade by molecular evidence. Many ecdysozoans are molting animals. ectoderm The outermost of the three primary germ layers in animal embryos; gives rise to the outer covering and, in some phyla, the nervous system, inner ear, and lens of the eye Ediacaran biota An early group of soft-bodied, multicellular eukaryotes known from fossils that range in age from 565 million to 545 million years old. endoderm the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems eumetazoans Member of a clade of animals with true tissues. gastrula double-walled stage of the embryo resulting from invagination of the blastula gastrulation the process in which a gastrula develops from a blastula by the inward migration of cells indeterminate cleavage A type of embryonic development in deuterostomes, in which each cell produced by early cleavage divisions retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo. larva the immature free-living form of most invertebrates and amphibians and fish which at hatching from the egg is fundamentally unlike its parent and must metamorphose lophophore A horseshoe-shaped or circular fold of the body wall bearing ciliated tentacles that surround the mouth. lophotrochozoans refers to animals in the taxa who either develop a lophophore or go through the trochophore larva stage mesoderm the middle germ layer that develops into muscle and bone and cartilage and blood and connective tissue metamorphosis the marked and rapid transformation of a larva into an adult that occurs in some animals posterior Towards the back of the body protostome development In animals, a developmental mode distinguished by the development of the mouth from the blastopore; often also characterized by spiral cleavage and by the body cavity forming when solid masses of mesoderm split. pseudocoelomates An animal whose body cavity is lined by tissue derived from mesoderm and endoderm. radial cleavage A type of embryonic development in deuterostomes in that the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells are either parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis, thereby aligning tiers of cells one above the other. radial symmetry body plan in which body parts repeat around the center of the body spiral cleavage A type of embryonic development in protostomes, in which the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells occur obliquely to the polar axis, resulting in cells of each tier sitting in the grooves between cells of adjacent tiers. tissues groups of similar cells that perform a specific function in an organism triploblastic Possessing three germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm. Most eumetazoans are triploblastic. trochophore larva Distinctive larval stage observed in some lophotrochozoan animals, including some annelids and molluscs. ventral Pertaining to the front acanthodians Group of jawed fishes, characterized by large spines in their fins. amniotes member of a clade of tetrapods that have an amniotic egg containing specialized membranes that protect the embryo; mammals, birds+reptiles amniotic egg A shelled, water-retaining egg that enables reptiles, birds, and egg-laying mammals to complete their life cycles on dry land amphibians vertebrates that live in water and on land, smooth skin covers body, lay eggs, cold blooded anthropoids A member of a primate group made up of the apes (gibbon, orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee, and bonobo), monkeys, and humans. archosaurs The reptilian group that includes crocodiles, alligators, dinosaurs, and birds. chondrichthyans member of the class Chondrichthyes, vertebrates with skeletons made mostly of cartilage, such as sharks and rays Chordate characteristics dorsal nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal pouches, tail posterior to anus Chordates an animal phylum that has a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and gill slits at some time in its life cycle cloaca a muscular cavity at the end of the large intestine through which digestive wastes, urine, and eggs or sperm leave the body Conodonts slender, soft bodied vertebrates with prominent eyes that were controlled by numerous muscles and armored; extinct craniates Chordates with a head, have a skull, brain, eyes, sensory organs, and the neural crest, a collection of cells near the dorsal margins of the closing neural tube in an embryo diapsids Reptiles possessing a skull with two pairs of openings behind each eye socket; includes squamates, birds, crocodiles, and dinosaurs dinosaurs An extremely diverse group of ancient reptiles varying in body shape, size, and habitat. ectothermic of animals except birds and mammals endothermic (of a chemical reaction or compound) occurring or formed with absorption of heat Eutherians placental mammals gnathostomes jawed vertebrates hominins the members of the human lineage after it split with the chimpanzee lineage lancets Invertebrate chordates that are small, fish-like creatures that live on the ocean bottom lateral line system sensitive receptor system that enables fish to detect gentle currents and vibrations in the water lepidosaurs The reptilian group that includes lizards, snakes, and two species of New Zealand animals called tuataras. lobe-fins a bony fish with strong, muscular fins supported by bones; extinct except for one species, the coelacanth mammals vertebrates that live on land, fur or hair covers body, live birth, warm blooded marsupials Mammals whose immature offspring complete their development in an external pouch. Monotremes mammals that lay eggs neural crest A band of cells along the border where the neural tube pinches off from the ectoderm; the cells migrate to various parts of the embryo and form the pigment cells in the skin, bones of the skull, the teeth, the adrenal glands, and parts of the peripheral nervous system. notochord a flexible rodlike structure that forms the supporting axis of the body in the lowest chordates and lowest vertebrates and in embryos of higher vertebrates operculum Movable flap that covers and protects the gills in fishes opposable thumb An arrangement of the fingers such that the thumb can touch the ventral surface of the fingertips of all four fingers. oviparous egg-laying ovoviviparous producing living young from eggs that hatch within the body paleoanthropology the scientific study of human fossils parareptiles First major group of reptiles to emerge, mostly large, stocky quadrupedal herbivores; died out in the late Triassic period pharyngeal clefts In chordate embryos, grooves that separate a series of pouches along the sides of the pharynx and may develop into pharyngeal slits. pharyngeal slits Slits used for filter feeding in primitive chordates and have been adapted for other functions in more highly evolved chordates; a common feature of all chordates. placenta the vascular structure in the uterus of most mammals providing oxygen and nutrients for and transferring wastes from the developing fetus placoderms extinct lineage of armored vertebrates Pterosaurs Winged reptiles that lived during the time of dinosaurs. ratites ostrich, kiwi, emu; flightless birds ray- finned fishes bony fishes, including trout, bass, perch, and tuna. their fins are supported by thin, flexible skeletal rays reptile any cold-blooded vertebrate of the class Reptilia including tortoises turtles snakes lizards alligators crocodiles and extinct forms swim bladder an air-filled sac near the spinal column in many fishes that helps maintain buoyancy synapsids have single opning in the outer layer of the skull just behind eye socket tetrapods vertebrate animals having four feet, legs or leglike appendages theropods A group of relatively small, bipedal, carnivorous dinosaurs. tunicates Members of the subphylum Urochordata, sessile marine chordates that lack a backbone. vertebrates Animals with backbones viviparous producing living young (not eggs) alveoli tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood Arteries blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart arterioles small vessels that receive blood from the arteries atherosclerosis condition in which fatty deposits called plaque build up on the inner walls of the arteries atria the two upper chambers of the heart- the receiving areas that pool incoming blood. atrioventricular node a node of specialized heart muscle located in the septal wall of the right atrium atrioventricular valve either of two heart valves through which blood flows from the atria to the ventricles blood A type of connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which blood cells are suspended. Bohr shift A lowering of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, caused by a drop in pH; facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the vicinity of active tissues. breathing the bodily process of inhalation and exhalation bronchi two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs. bronchioles progressively smaller tubular branches of the airways Capillaries tiny, thin-walled blood vessels that allow the exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and the cells of the body capillary beds sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid cardiac cycle the complete cycle of events in the heart from the beginning of one heart beat to the beginning of the next cardiac output the amount of blood pumped out by the ventricles in a given period of time cardiovascular system the organs and tissues involved in circulating blood and lymph through the body closed circulatory system system in which blood is contained within a network of blood vessels countercurrent exchange the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss. diaphragm Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing diastole the widening of the chambers of the heart between two contractions when the chambers fill with blood diastolic pressure the blood pressure (as measured by a sphygmomanometer) after the contraction of the heart while the chambers of the heart refill with blood double circulation a circulatory system consisting of separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, in which blood passes through the heart after completing each circuit electrocardiogram a graphical recording of the cardiac cycle produced by an electrocardiograph endothelium an epithelium of mesoblastic origin erythrocytes Red blood cells that transport oxygen erythropoietin a glycoprotein secreted by the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells heart the hollow muscular organ located behind the sternum and between the lungs heart attack the event in which vessels that feed the heart muscle become blocked, causing tissue death heart murmur an abnormal sound of the heart heart rate the rate at which the heart beats hemoglobin iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen for delivery to cells hemolymph In invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues. high-density lipoprotein good cholesterol;transports cholesterol from the arteries to the liver Hypertension High Blood pressure larynx a cartilaginous structure at the top of the trachea leukocytes white blood cells, or WBC, form in the bone marrow and are part of the body's nonspecific defenses and the immune system low-density lipoprotein bad cholesterol; transports cholesterol from the liver to the body tissues lungs two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration lymph a thin coagulable fluid (similar to plasma but) containing white blood cells (lymphocytes) and chyle lymph nodes Bean-shaped filters that cluster along the lymphatic vessels of the body. They function as a cleanser of lymph as wells as a site of T and B cell activation lymphatic system the interconnected system of spaces and vessels between body tissues and organs by which lymph circulates throughout the body myoglobin a hemoprotein that receives oxygen from hemoglobin and stores it in the tissues until needed negative pressure breathing a breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs open circulatory system A circulatory system that allows the blood to flow out of the blood vessels and into various body cavities so that the cells are in direct contact with the blood partial pressure The contribution of an individual gas to the total ppressure of a mixture of gases. Partial pressures are used to describe the amounts of the various gases carried in the bloodstream. plasma colorless watery fluid of blood and lymph containing no cells and in which erythrocytes and leukocytes and platelets are suspended platelets important for blood clot formation, they are cell fragments of large multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes) formed in the bone marrow positive pressure breathing A breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs. pulmocutaneous circuit A branch of the circulatory system in many amphibians that supplies the lungs and skin. pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange and returns it to the heart pulse the rhythmic contraction and expansion of the arteries with each beat of the heart residual volume The amount of air that remains in the lungs after a person exhales as forcefully as he or she can respiratory pigments proteins that transport oxygen, greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry Semilunar valves pulmonary and aortic valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta sickle-cell disease A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that results in the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein; characterized by deformed red blood cells that can lead to numerous symptoms. single circulation a circulatory system consisting of a single pump and circuit, in which blood passes from the sites of gas exchange to the rest of the body before returning to the heart sinoatrial node a specialized bit of heart tissue that controls the heartbeat stem cell an undifferentiated cell whose daughter cells may differentiate into other cell types (such as blood cells) stroke a sudden loss of consciousness resulting when the rupture or occlusion of a blood vessel leads to oxygen lack in the brain stroke volume the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each heartbeat surfactant An amphipathic molecule secreted by cells in the alveoli (type 2 alveolar cells) tha reducs surface tension on the inside of the alveolar walls. This prevents the alveoli from collapsing upon exhale and sticking together, thus reducing the effort required for inspiration. systemic circuit Circuit of blood that carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body. systole the contraction of the chambers of the heart (especially the ventricles) to drive blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery systolic pressure the blood pressure (as measured by a sphygmomanometer) during the contraction of the left ventricle of the heart thrombus a stationary clot. When it has grown enough to close off a blood vessel, this dangerous event is a thrombosis tidal volume Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath trachea membranous tube with cartilaginous rings that conveys inhaled air from the larynx to the bronchi tracheal system A gas exchange system of branched, chitin-lined tubes that infiltrate the body and carry oxygen directly to cells in insects. vasoconstriction decrease in the diameter of blood vessels vasodilation widening of the blood vessels that allows for increased blood flow veins blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart ventricles the two lower chambers of the heart, and they pump blood out to the lungs and body. venules small vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins vital capacity the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation (usually tested with a spirometer) abortion the deliberate termination of a pregnancy acrosome a process at the anterior end of a sperm cell that produces enzymes to facilitate penetration of the egg asexual reproduction reproduction without the fusion of gametes assisted reproductive technologies medical techniques used to increase fertility. birth control pills Chemical contraceptives that inhibit ovulation, retard follicular development, or alter a woman's cervical mucus to prevent sperm from entering the uterus. blastocyst A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass. THis is the structure that implants in the endometrium of the uterus. budding reproduction of some unicellular organisms (such as yeasts) by growth and specialization followed by the separation by constriction of a part of the parent cervix the opening to the uterus clitoris a female sexual organ homologous to the penis cloaca a muscular cavity at the end of the large intestine through which digestive wastes, urine, and eggs or sperm leave the body coitus sexual intercourse, copulation condom contraceptive device consisting of a thin rubber or latex sheath worn over the penis during intercourse Contraception birth control by the use of devices (diaphragm or intrauterine device or condom) or drugs or surgery corpus luteum yellow endocrine tissue that forms in a ruptured Graafian follicle following the release of an ovum diaphragm a contraceptive device consisting of a flexible dome-shaped cup made of rubber or plastic ectopic pregnancy outside the uterus egg animal reproductive body consisting of an ovum or embryo together with nutritive and protective envelopes ejaculation the discharge of semen in males ejaculatory duct a part of the seminal duct formed by the duct from the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens endometriosis the presence of endometrium elsewhere than in the lining of the uterus endometrium inner lining of the uterus epididymis structure in the male reproductive system in which sperm fully mature and are stored estrous cycles type of reproductive cycle in which thickened endometrium is reabsorbed. external fertilization the process by which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them once they are outside of the female fertilization process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell fetus an unborn or unhatched vertebrate in the later stages of development showing the main recognizable features of the mature animal fission reproduction of some unicellular organisms by division of the cell into two more or less equal parts follicles clusters of cells surrounding a single egg follicular phase The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period. gametogenesis the development and maturation of sex cells through meiosis glans head of the penis or clitoris gonads reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries hermaphroditism showing characteristics of both sexes human chorionic gonadotropin stimulates the corpus luteum to grow and secrete estrogen and progesterone at a higher rate; pregnancy tests work by detecting this in women's urine hymen a fold of tissue that partly covers the entrance to the vagina of a virgin in vitro fertilization the union of sperm and egg in an artificial setting, usually in a laboratory inhibin A protein hormone secreted by sustenacular cells of the testes that acts to inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. internal fertilization Process in which eggs are fertilized inside the female's body intracytoplasmic sperm injection fertilization accomplished by injecting a sperm cell directly into an egg labia majora the two outer folds of the vulva labia minora the two inner folds of the vulva labor concluding state of pregnancy lactation the production and secretion of milk by the mammary glands Leydig cells A cell that produces testosterone and other androgens and is located between the seminiferous tubules of the testes. luteal phase The third phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a corpus luteum is formed from the remnants of the follicle that has ovulated its oocyte. The corpus luteum secretes progestrone and estrogen during this time period, which typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. Formation of the corpul luteum is triggered by the same LH surge that triggers ovulation, however in the absence of LH (levels quickly decline after the surge) the corpus luteum begins to degenerate mammary glands specialized organs in mammals that produce milk to nourish the young menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines menstrual cycle cycle during which an egg develops and is released from an ovary and the uterus is prepared to receive a fertilized egg menstrual flow phase the portion of the uterine cycle when menstrual bleeding occcurs menstruation the monthly discharge of blood from the uterus of nonpregnant women from puberty to menopause myotonia delayed relaxation of a muscle after contraction natural family planning any of several methods of family planning that do not involve sterilization or contraceptive devices or drugs oocyte a female gametocyte that develops into an ovum after two meiotic divisions Oogenesis development of ova oogonia the primitive stem cells that begin oogenesis. during fetal development, these undergo mitosis thousands of times until their number reaches two million or more organogenesis process of organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development orgasm A function of the reproductive system controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. In males, organs includes emission and ejaculation; in females it is mainly a series of rhythmic contraction of the pelvic floor muscles and the uterus. ovarian cycle cyclic changes that occur in the ovaries oviduct either of a pair of tubes conducting the egg from the ovary to the uterus Ovulation the expulsion of an ovum from the ovary (usually midway in the menstrual cycle) Parthenogenesis process in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual penis the male organ that transfers sperm to a female and that carries urine out of the body. placenta the vascular structure in the uterus of most mammals providing oxygen and nutrients for and transferring wastes from the developing fetus prepuce Foreskin; fold of skin covering the tip of the penis primary oocytes Diploid cells resulting from the activation of anoogoium; primary oocytes are ready to enter meiosis I. remember: cyte means ready to undergo meiosi proliferative phase The second phase of the uterine (endometrial) cycle, during which the endometrium (shed off during menstration is rebuilt). This phase of the cycle is under the control of estrogen, secreted from the follicle developing in the ovary during this time period. The proliferative phase typically lasts from day 6 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. prostate gland a firm partly muscular chestnut sized gland in males at the neck of the urethra rhythm method a form of birth control where intercourse is timed so that it does not occur on or around the days when the egg might be available for fertilization scrotum the external pouch that contains the testes secondary oocyte A haploid cell resulting from the first meiotic division of oogenesi (not that the cytoplasmic division in this case is unequal, producing one large cell with almost all of they cytoplasm - the secondary oocyte- and one smaller cell with virtually no cytoplasm - the first polar body.). The secondary oocyte (along with some follicular cells) is released from the ovary during ovulation. secretory phase The third phase of the uterin (endometrial) cycle, during which the rebuilt endometrium is enhanced with glycogen and lipid stores. The secretory phase is primarily under the controll of progestone and estrogen (secreted from the copus luteum during this time period), adn typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. semen the thick white fluid containing spermatozoa that is ejaculated by the male genital tract seminal vesicles two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move seminiferous tubules Small convoluted tubules in the testes where spermatogenesis takes place. sexual reproduction reproduction involving the union or fusion of a male and a female gamete sperm the male reproductive cell spermathecae in some female reproductive tract, receives and stores sperm and can sometimes be the site of fertilization when oocytes are ready Spermatogenesis development of spermatozoa spermatogonia The diploid cells in a testis that can give rise to primary spermatocytes. testes The male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete male sex hormones. trophoblast the membrane that forms the wall of the blastocyst in early development Tubal ligation Surgical tying off of the fallopian tubes to prevent conception from taking place. Results in sterilization of the female. urethra duct through which urine is discharged in most mammals and which serves as the male genital duct uterine cycle The cycle that prepares the uterus for the growth of an embryo. uterus a hollow muscular organ in the pelvic cavity of females vagina in the human female reproductive system, a canal that leads from the uterus to the outside of the body vas deferens a duct that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct vasectomy removal of a segment of the vas deferens to produce sterility in the male vasocongestion Engorgement of blood vessels. vulva external female genitalia; includes the labia, hymen, clitoris, and the vaginal orifice zygote the cell resulting from the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon (including the organism that develops from that cell) behavior an action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus behavioral ecology The study of the evolution of and ecological basis for animal behavior. fixed action pattern innate behavior that occurs as an unchangeable sequence of actions sign stimulus an external sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern migration periodic movement and return of animals from one place to another signal a behavior that causes a change in behavior in another animal communication the act of exchanging information pheromones odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species innate behavior a behavior that is influenced by genes and does not depend on learning twin study A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. cross fostering study A behavioral study in which the young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species. learning the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge imprinting a learning process in early life whereby species specific patterns of behavior are established sensitive period A limited phase in an individual animal's development when learning of particular behaviors can take place. spatial learning Modification of behavior based on experience of the spatial structure of the environment. cognitive map a mental representation of the layout of one's environment associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). cognition the psychological result of perception and learning and reasoning problem solving the area of cognitive psychology that studies the processes involved in solving problems social learning form of learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others culture the attitudes and behavior that are characteristic of a particular social group or organization optimal foraging model the basis for analyzing behavior as a compromise between feeding costs and feeding benefits foraging Behavior necessary to recognize, search for, capture, and consume food. promiscuous casual and unrestrained in sexual behavior monogamous Having sexual relations with one partner only, excluding all others. These relationships are usually long-term relationships. polygamous a type of relationship in which an individual of one sex mates with several of the other intrasexual selection A direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually the males in vertebrates) for mates of the opposite sex. intersexual selection Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex; also called mate choice. Mate-choice copying Behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others, apparently as a result of social learning. game theory the study of how people behave in strategic situations. altruism Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself inclusive fitness The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring. coefficient of relatedness The probability that a particular gene present in one individual will also be inherited from a common parent or ancestor in a second individual. Hamilton's rule The principle that for natural selection to favor an altruistic act, the benefit to the recipient, devalued by the coefficient of relatedness, must exceed the cost to the altruist. sociobiology a theoretical approach that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture reciprocal altruism behavior that ben

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fruit dispersal

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ingestion & transportation hitching a ride burial in caches blowing in the wind floating/drifting on water

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self-pollination

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• small, inconspicuous flowers • favored in stable environments 1. no need for pollinators 2. uniform offspring better adapted to their environment

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Lichens

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symbiotic mass of Ascomycete fungus and cyanobacteria or green algae mutualistic or parasitic? fruticose/foliose/crustose

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asexual - conidiophores - conidia

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germination

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• emergence of the radicle (first root) • depends on - water / oxygen • additional signals - specific wavelength of light - specific photoperiod - appropriate temperature - number of days at a temperature - cold stratification

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adaptation

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• cones open when exposed to fire • inhibitory chemicals leached from the seed coat • pass through the intestine of birds or mammals

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angiosperm life cycle

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pollination strategies to promote outcrossing

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1. separation of male&female structures in space (dioecious) 2. separation of male an female structures in time • monoecious - male&female on the same plant • stamens and pistils reach maturity at different times - dichogamous 3. self-incompatibility • pollen and stigma recognize each other as self - gametophytic self-incompatibility [block occurs after pollen tube germination] - sporophytic self-incompatibility [the pollen tube fails to germinate]

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fertilization

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• female gametophyte - egg 1n - 2 polar nuclei 1n - 2 synergids • male gametophyte - in pollen grain - 2 sperm 1n - pollen tube • double fertilization - endosperm 3n - zygote 2n

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senescence

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process leading to plant death

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