Section 1
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estimate uncertainty
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Cards (400)
Section 1
(50 cards)
estimate uncertainty
approximations of validity associated with imperfect or unknown measures and variables
cgs system
set of units that uses centimeter, gram, and second
What's the equations for average velocity?
final position - initial position / time elapsed
time interval
the difference between two times
order-of-magnitude estimate
A high-level estimate of the time and cost of a project based on the actual cost and duration of a similar project
physics
The study of matter and energy and the interactions between the two through forces and motion
elapsed time
The difference between a starting time and an ending time
What's the equation for average speed?
distance traveled / time elapsed
standard of length
meter (m)
kinematics
the study of how things move
meter
instrument for measuring
What is one unified atomic mass unit in terms of the kilogram?
1.6605 x 10^-27 kg
law
a descriptive statement or equation that reliably predicts events under certain conditions
classical physics
the branches of physics developed before 1900, including mechanics, thermodynamics, optics, acoustics, and electromagnetism
principle
The method of formation, operation, or procedure exhibited in a given instance
dimensions
Cut or shape an object to particular measurements
model
A pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept
What is the standard unit of mass?
the kilogram (kg)
particle
The smallest piece of a substance that is still that substance
base quantity
the essential physical aspects of a measuring system that can be used alone or in combination to describe what is being measured
vectors
quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction
uncertainty
an estimate of how much a measured or calculated value differs from a true value
average velocity
the total displacement divided by the time interval during which the displacement occurred
modern physics
quantum mechanics, relativity, solid-state physics, and particle physics
velocity
the speed of an object in a particular direction
significant figures
a prescribed decimal place that determines the amount of rounding off to be done based on the precision of the measurement
theories
explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles
measurement
a quantity that has both a number and a unit
dynamics
volume
dimensional analysis
a technique of problem-solving that uses the units that are part of a measurement to help solve the problem
mechanics
the study of the motion of objects
standard
an exact quantity that people agree to use to compare measurements
What is the standard unit of time?
the second (s)
position
an object's distance and direction from a reference point
percent uncertainty
the ratio of the uncertainty of a measurement to the measured value, expressed as a percentage
British engineering system
set of units that uses the foot, the pound, and the second
observation
the action or process of observing something or someone carefully or in order to gain information.
scientific notation
A method of writing or displaying numbers in terms of a decimal number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10.
testing
the systematic comparison of different product designs or design iterations
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables
unified atomic mass unit
a unit of mass that describes the mass of an atom or molecule
percent error
the absolute value of the error divided by the accepted value, multiplied by 100%
reference frame
A group of objects that are not moving relative to each other
average speed
the total distance traveled along its path divided by the time it takes to travel this distance
length
a measure of the straight-line distance between two points
derived quantity
a physical aspect describe by a combination of base quantities
translational motion
objects that move without rotating
coordinate axes
the x and y axes in the coordinate plane
conversion. factor
a ratio of equivalent measurements used to convert a quantity from one unit to another
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Section 2
(50 cards)
Galileo Galilei
This scientist proved Copernicus' theory that the sun was the center of the solar system and developed the modern experimental method
vector
A quantity that has magnitude and direction
speed
distance / time interval
instantaneous velocity
the speed and direction of an object at a particular instant
weight
A measure of the force of gravity on an object
gravitational force
the force of attraction between all masses in the universe
period in physics
in physics, the time that it takes a complete cycle or wave oscillation to occur
uniform circular motion
the movement of an object at a constant speed around a circle with a fixed radius
magnitude
Greatness of size, strength, or importance
acceleration due to gravity
the acceleration of an object in free fall that results from the influence of Earth's gravity 10 m/s^2
resultant displacement
The vector sum of individual displacements
free-body diagram
a physical model that represents the forces acting on a system
contact force
a push or pull on one object by another that is touching it
kinetic friction
the force that opposes the movement of two surfaces that are in contact and are moving over each other
mass
the amount of matter in an object
tension
stress that occurs when forces act to stretch an object
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time
vector components
Parts into which a vector can be separated and that act in different directions from the vector
net force
The combination of all forces acting on an object
slope
the steepness of a line on a graph, equal to its vertical change divided by its horizontal change
What's the equation for average acceleration?
average acceleration = change of velocity / time elapsed
centripetal acceleration
acceleration toward the center of a curved or circular path
newton
SI unit of force
At rest, what does v equal?
v = 0
average acceleration
the change in velocity divided by the time taken to make this change
inertial reference frame
Reference frame that has a zero or constant velocity (both speed and direction)
projectile motion
the curved path that an object follows when thrown, launched, or otherwise projected near the surface of Earth
parallelogram method
A method used to find the resultant of two vectors in which you place the vectors at the same initial point, complete a parallelogram, and draw the diagonal
newton's first law of motion
an object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by another force
newton's third law of motion
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
static friction
a friction force that acts on objects that are not moving
centrifuge
device to separate substances by spinning them at high speed
relative velocity
describes the velocity of an object with respect to a frame of reference
force
A push or pull exerted on an object
displacement
how different my position is NOW from where it was BEFORE (vector)
newton's second law of motion
The acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied
distance (d)
how far traveled (scalar)
normal force
the force perpendicular to a surface that prevents an object from falling through the surface
radial acceleration
component of acceleration of a body in angular motion directed toward the center of curvature; represents change in direction
force diagram
a diagram of the objects involved in a situation and the forces exerted on the objects
newton's law of universal gravitation
states that every object in the universe attracts every other object
Is the speed of a falling object proportional to its mass or weight?
NO
instantaneous acceleration
how fast a velocity is changing at a specific instant
What is acceleration due to gravity?
g = 9.80 m/s^2
tail-to-tip method of adding vectors
The length of the resultant can be measured with a ruler and compared to the scale. Angles can be measured with a protractor.
acceleration
the rate of change of either velocity or speed (based off of scalar or vector)
slope of a curve
the slope of the tangent to the curve at that point
kilogram
SI unit for mass
instantaneous velocity
the average velocity during an infinitesimally short time interval
scalar
A physical quantity that has magnitude only
Section 3
(50 cards)
rotational kinetic energy
the kinetic energy of an object, proportional to the object's moment of inertia and the square of its angular velocity
joule
SI unit of energy
elastic potential energy
the potential energy of an object that is stretched or compressed
work
force x distance
efficiency
The percentage of the input work that is converted to output work
law of conservation of momentum
law stating that the total momentum of a system does not change if no net force acts on the system
linear momentum
the product of the mass and velocity of an object
translational kinetic energy
The energy of a system due to the motion of the systems center of mass
torque
a turning or twisting force
instantaneous angular velocity
The angular velocity of an object at a given instant of time
nonconservative force
a force whose work depends on the path followed between the given initial and final configurations
gravitational potential energy
potential energy related to an object's height
radian
a unit of angle, equal to an angle at the center of a circle whose arc is equal in length to the radius
isolated system
A system that can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings
impulse
change in momentum
tangential acceleration
the instantaneous linear acceleration of an object directed along the tangent to the object's circular path
conservation of mechanical energy
if there is no friction or air resistance, the mechanical energy of a system changes only if the system does work on something else or energy is added from outside the system
spring equation
Fsubs = -k * x
center of mass
the point in an object that moves as if all the object's mass were concentrated at that point
elastic collision
A collision in which colliding objects rebound without lasting deformation or the generation of heat
completely inelastic collision
a collision in which the colliding objects stick together after the collision
conserved quantity
a physical quantity which has a sum that does not change. For instance, the total energy in the universe remains constant, although that energy can change forms, like from kinetic energy to potential energy
force of gravity equation
Fg = Gm1m2/r^2
angular momentum
the quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of its moment of inertia and its angular velocity
Hooke's Law
The law stating that the stress of a solid is directly proportional to the strain applied to it
lever arm
The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a line drawn along the direction of the force
inelastic collision
A collision in which the colliding objects become distorted, generate heat, and possibly stick together
total mechanical energy
E=U+K
equilibrium
a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
three laws of motion of bodies attracted together by the gravitational force
statics
branch of mechanics dealing with systems in a constant state of motion
axis of rotation
an imaginary line about which a turning body such as earth rotates
instantaneous angular acceleration
change in angular velocity at one specific instant in time
average angular velocity
angular displacement divided by the time during which the displacement occurs
the right-hand rule
procedure for identifying the direction of an angular motion vector
average angular acceleration
the change in angular velocity in a given interval of time
law of conservation of energy
the law that states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another
rigid object
an object with a definite shape that doesn't change, so that the particles composing it stay in fixed positions relative to one another
kinetic energy
the energy an object has due to its motion
horsepower
a common unit of power, equal to about 746 watts
conservation of momentum
Momentum of a system remains constant when there are no net external forces acting on it
watt
SI unit of power
work-energy principle
The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy
perturbations
The gravitational forces of other planets that can cause small variations in a planet's motion
law of conservation of angular momentum
An object or system of objects will maintain a constant angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced external torque
dissipative forces
forces that transfer energy which is wasted
center of gravity
the point around which an object's weight is evenly distributed
conservative forces
interaction forces that can store useful energy
newton's second law for rotation
A net torque on an object or system will cause angular acceleration. ΣT = I•α
moment arm
The perpendicular distance from a reference point to the line of action of the force
Section 4
(50 cards)
Venturi tube
a primary flow element consisting of a fabricated pipe section with a converging inlet section, a straight throat, and a diverging outlet section
neutral equilibrium
the state of an object balanced so that any small movement neither raises nor lowers its center of gravity
specific gravity
ratio of a mineral's weight compared with the weight of an equal volume of water
flow rate
The volume of fluid that moves through a system in a given period of time
cantilever
A long piece of wood, metal, etc., that sticks out from a wall to support something above it
shear modulus
A term describing a solid's resistance to shear stress, denoted by the letter S and measured by the ratio of shear stress (F/A) to strain (x/h)
equation of continuity
ρAvsub1 = ρAvsub2
equilibrium position
the relative concentrations of reactants and products of a reaction that has reached equilibrium; indicates whether the reactants or products are favored in the reversible reaction
first condition for equilibrium
ΣFxyz = 0
stable equilibrium
The condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to a previous equilibrium condition following disturbance
tensile stress
Pulls and stretches the material
viscosity
A liquid's resistance to flowing
elastic modulus
ratio of stress to strain
pascal
SI unit of pressure
gauge pressure
the difference between the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure
bulk modulus
A term that describes a substance's resistance to compression under pressure, denoted by the variable B and measured by the ratio of stress (delta P) to strain (delta V/V)
surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid
barometer
An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure
strain
to draw or stretch tight beyond the normal limits
Bernoulli's equation
P1 +1/2 ρv_1^2+ρgh_1= P_2+1/2 ρv_2^2+ρgh_2 P : absolute pressure of the fluid v: linear speed h: height of the fluid
dynamic lift
The net upward force on a wing
amplitude
the height of a wave's crest
compressive stress
A stress due to a force pushing together on a body
buoyant force
the upward force exerted by a fluid on a submerged object
capillarity
the attraction between molecules that results in the rise of a liquid in small tubes
one atmosphere
The atmospheric pressure at sea level, equal to 101.3 kPa
plasma phase
free electrons move among positively charged ions
liquid
A state of matter that has no definite shape but has a definite volume
proportional limit
Point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the applied force. Hooke's Law no longer applies
unstable equilibrium
the state of an object balanced so that any small displacement or rotation lowers its center of gravity
hydrodynamics
a part of fluid dynamics concerned with how liquids move
pressure
the amount of force exerted per unit area of a surface
absolute pressure
The total pressure exerted on a system, including atmospheric pressure
Archimedes' principle
the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
Pascal's principle
When force is applied to a confined fluid, the change in pressure, is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid
ultimate strength
the maximum amount of stress a material can withstand without breaking
shear stress
A measure of how easily a material can be twisted
liquid crystals
liquids which keep some ordered structure
second condition for equilibrium
the sum of all torques is zero
Young's modulus
A measure of the stiffness of an elastic material and defined by stress/strain
turbulent flow
Irregular flow with random variations in pressure.
fluid dynamics
a part of the study of fluid mechanics concerned with how fluids move
oscillates
move or swing back and forth at a regular speed
density
mass/volume
elastic limit
Maximum stress that a material will withstand without permanent deformation
laminar flow
Flows in parallel lines in a smooth progression
Bernoulli's principle
as the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by the fluid decreases
stress
A force that acts on rock to change its shape or volume
Torricelli's theorem
vsub1 = radical(2g(ysub2-ysub1))
vibrates
moves back and forth or up and down very fast
Section 5
(50 cards)
decibel
a logarithmic unit of sound intensity
law of reflection
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
destructive interference
The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a smaller amplitude
harmonies
the combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes to produce chords and chord progressions having a pleasing effect
supersonic speed
any speed that is faster than the speed of sound in the substance of interest
longitudinal wave
A wave in which the vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction the wave travels
bel
Logarithmic unit of measure of sound intensity
wavelength
Horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves
ray
A part of a line, with one endpoint, that continues without end in one direction
beat frequency
The difference between the frequencies of the two combining sound waves that make a beat
loudness level
Is dependent on the intensity of the wave, is a way to describe the decibels of the sound
damped harmonic motion
a vibration that fades out as energy is transferred from one object to another
resonant frequency
The frequency at which standing waves are made
wave velocity
frequency x wavelength
sinusoidal
a graph or a function that has the form of a sine or cosine function
fundamental frequency
the lowest frequency of vibration of a standing wave
simple pendulum
an object with a small mass suspended from a light wire or string
sound level
the logarithmic scale that measures the amplitudes of sounds that humans can hear
transverse wave
A wave that moves the medium in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the wave travels
intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
pressure waves
sound energy
Doppler effect
An observed change in the frequency of a wave when the source or observer is moving
plane waves
waves that move in straight lines
overdamped
the damping is so large that it takes the system a long time to reach equilibrium
underdamped
system makes several oscillations before coming to rest
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
periodic wave
a wave whose source is some form of periodic motion
wave fronts
another term for the crests of a wave
ultrasonic
having a frequency higher than what can be heard by the human ear
antinodes
points of maximum amplitude on a standing wave
nodes
the points at which leaves are attached
constructive interference
The interference that occurs when two waves combine to make a wave with a larger amplitude
refraction
The bending of a wave as it passes at an angle from one medium to another
forced vibration
The setting up of vibrations in an object by a vibrating force
audible range
The range of frequencies that you can hear
loudness
A physical response to the intensity of sound, modified by physical factors
redshift
shift of light to a longer wavelength as it moves away
phase
any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties
natural frequency
the frequency at which a system oscillates when disturbed
standing wave
a pattern of vibration that simulates a wave that is standing still
resonance
A phenomenon that occurs when two objects naturally vibrate at the same frequency
resonant frequencies
the frequencies at which standing waves are made
Mach number
the ratio of an object's speed to the speed of sound
law of refraction
as light passes from less dense medium into more dense medium, it will bend towards the normal. If the light ray passes from more dense to less dense, it bends away from the normal
overtones
tones that result from sound waves that are multiples of the basic tone; primary determinant of timbre
speed of sound
The speed at which a sound wave travels through a given material
mechanical waves
waves that require a medium through which to travel
natural frequencies
the set of frequencies at which an object vibrates
interference
the combination of two or more waves that results in a single wave
critical damping
when a resistive force is applied to an oscillating system that causes the particle to return to zero displacement in a minimum amount of time
Section 6
(50 cards)
internal energy
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all particles in the system
zeroth law of thermodynamics
A law that if two systems are separately found to be in thermal equilibrium with a third system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other; that is, all three systems are at the same temperature. Also known as thermodynamic equilibrium
triple point
the temperature and pressure conditions at which the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a substance coexist at equilibrium
diffusion constant
rate of transfer increases as diffusion constant increases
thermal equilibrium
The state of two or more objects or substances in thermal contact when they have reached a common temperature
Brownian motion
the chaotic movement of colloidal particles, caused by collision with particles of the solvent in which they are dispersed
superfluidity
Frictionless flow
partial pressure
the contribution each gas in a mixture of gases makes to the total pressure
pulse-echo technique
ultrasound imaging in which pulses are reflected and used to produce a display
evaporation
The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas
atomic mass
The average mass of all the isotopes of an element
molecular mass
The sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule
mechanical equivalent of heat
the relationship between mechanical energy and heat
calorie
A unit of heat used to measure the energy your body uses and the energy it receives from food
relative humidity
The amount of water vapor in the air at any given time is usually less than that required to saturate the air
diffusion equation
J= -PA(C1-C2)
thermometers
an instrument for measuring and indicating temperature
concentration gradient
A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance
centrigrade
referring to a thermometer scale of 100 degrees where water freezes at 0 and boils at 100
Boyle's law
P1V1=P2V2
kinetic theory
all matter consists of tiny particles that are in constant motion
Avogadro's number
6.02 x 10^23
absolute zero
The temperature at which no more energy can be removed from matter
Maxwell distribution of speeds
The speeds of molecules in a gas vary based on the number of molecules present
Ideal Gas Law
PV=nRT
unified atomic mass units
exactly 1/12 the mass of a C-12 atom
phase diagram
a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor
saturated vapor pressure
when their is a balance due to the number of molecules evaporating and the number of molecules condensing
condensation
The change of state from a gas to a liquid
supersaturated
increase the concentration of (a solution) beyond saturation point
volume expansion
the increase in volume of fluids when heated
equation of state
any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a substance
atom
Basic unit of matter
dew point
The temperature at which condensation begins
critical point
indicates the critical temperature and critical pressure
heat
The energy transferred between objects that are at different temperatures
boiling
The temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas
absolute scale
temperature scale in Kelvin
constant-volume gas thermometer
measures the temperature on the ideal-gas temperature scale using a rigid vessel filled with a gas, usually hydrogen or helium, at low pressure. The temperature of a gas of fixed volume varies linearly with pressure at sufficiently low pressures
universal gas constant
the combined proportionality constant in the ideal gas law; 0.08206 L atm/ K mol, or 8.314 J/K mol
shock wave
a cone shaped wave produced by an object moving at supersonic speed through a fluid
Boltzmann's constant
a physical constant relating the average kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the temperature of the gas; it is the gas constant R divided by Avogadro's number (1.38x10^-23 J K^-1)
microscopic
too small to be seen except under a microscope
macroscopic
large enough to be visible to the naked eye
diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
sublimation
A change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming liquid
Kelvin scale
The temperature scale on which zero is the temperature at which no more energy can be removed from matter
mole
the SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance
Fick's law
law stating that the net diffusion rate of a gas across a fluid membrane is proportional to the difference in partial pressure, proportional to the area of the membrane, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane
critical temperature
the temperature above which a substance cannot exist in the liquid state
Section 7
(50 cards)
insulators
materials that prevent electric charges from flowing through them easily
heat of fusion
Amount of energy required to change a substance from the solid phase to the liquid phase
microstate
A state that encompasses a very small land area
closed system
A system in which no matter is allowed to enter or leave
isobaric process
A process that occurs at a constant pressure
macrostate
the overall state of a system as defined by a given set of conditions
change of phase
when a particle gains or loses enough kinetic energy to change states
thermal conductivity
The ability of an object to transfer heat
time's arrow
fate of the universe
coulomb
SI unit of charge
thermodynamics
The study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter
permittivity of free space
e0 (capacitance) 8.85 x 10^-12 F/m
entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness
solar constant
the rate at which radiant solar energy is received at the outer layer of the earth's atmosphere
law of conservation of electric charge
The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant
state variables
The variables held in the flip-flops of a state machine that determine its present state
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
air pollution
the contamination of the atmosphere by the introduction of pollutants from human and natural sources
thermal pollution
a temperature increase in a body of water that is caused by human activity and that has a harmful effect on water quality and on the ability of that body of water to support life
Carnot engine
a theoretical device that would generate the maximum possible amount of work from a given amount of heat
conductors
materials that allow electric charges to flow through them easily
Stefan-Boltzmann equation
An equation that relates the temperature of a surface and the rate at which the surface emits electromagnetic energy
heat of vaporization
The amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas
point charges
spatial size negligible compared to other distances
heat engine
a device that converts thermal energy into mechanical energy
static electricity
the accumulation of excess electric charge on an object
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work
semiconductors
elements that conduct an electric current under certain conditions
radiation
Energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles
electrometers
meter to measure electrostatic voltage differences
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
bomb calorimeter
a device for measuring the heat evolved in the combustion of a substance under constant-volume conditions
latent heats
values for the heats of fusion and vaporization
electroscope
An instrument used to detect electric charge
calorimeter
a measuring instrument that determines quantities of heat
Coulomb's law
F=K q₁*q₂/r², magnitude of force between two charges
Clausius Statement
It is impossible for any system to operate in such a way that the sole result would be an energy transfer by heat from a cooler to a hotter body
thermal energy
The total energy of motion in the particles of a substance
emissivity
The ratio of power emitted by a body to the power emitted if it was a black body
global warming
An increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere (especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes)
electric charge
an electrical property of matter that creates electric and magnetic forces and interactions
isovolumetric process
a thermodynamic process that takes place at constant volume so that no work is done on or by the system
polar
Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water
specific heat
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree celcius
thermography
recording a visual image of body heat using infrared devices
working substance
transports energy within system
energy degradation
the fact that energy, while conserved, becomes less useful for the purpose of performing mechanical work
heat reservoir
a reservoir at a higher temperature than the system; source of thermal energy for the system
isothermal process
a thermodynamic process that takes place at constant temperature
heat death
A model for the end of the universe in which all matter and energy disperse to the point of maximum entropy
Section 8
(50 cards)