Section 1
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Variation
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Cards (290)
Section 1
(50 cards)
Variation
differences in physical traits of an individual from the group to which it belongs
stratum spinosum
a layer of the epidermis that provides strength and flexibility to the skin
Dermis
Inner layer of skin
glucagon
A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.
Annelids
A segmented worm which include earthworms, polychaetes, and leeches
Darwin's Theory of natural selection
overproduction, variation, competition, selection
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (rest and digest)
frameshift mutation
mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
Lamarckian evolution
The use or disuse of some structure or behavior causes an increase or decrease in that behavior. The is a natural force in all living things that pushes them toward perfection
Lysosomes
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell
Ectoderm
outermost germ layer; produces sense organs, nerves, and outer layer of skin
Cnidaria
jellyfish, coral: they contain nerve nets
Estradiol
estrogen secreted by the ovaries
Ribosomes
Makes proteins
menstrual cycle
Insertion
A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.
Aldosterone
Hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions and water and increases blood pressure and blood volume
stratum corneum
outermost layer of the epidermis, which consists of flattened, keratinized cells
Nematoda
unsegmented worms: roundworms
LH
Luteinizing hormone, ovulation and egg release, maturation of egg, release of testosterone in males.
genetic mutation
point, silent, insertion, frameshift
Mesoderm
middle germ layer; develops into muscles, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
stratum lucidum
a layer of the epidermis found only in the thick skin of the fingers, palms, and soles
liver tissue
responsible for glycogen breakdown, glycogen synthesis, conversion of ammonia to urea, bile synthesis
Endoderm
the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems
competition
the struggle between organisms to survive in a habitat with limited resources
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
Golgi body
A structure in a cell that receives proteins and other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic reticulum, packages them, and distributes them to other parts of the cell.
Porifera
sea sponges; sessile (cannot move)
Demes
small, local populations that form within a species
stratum basale
the deepest layer of the epidermis consisting of stem cells capable of undergoing cell division to form new cells
PGAL (G3P)
prime end product of photosynthesis, can be used immediately as food, can be rearranged to form glucose, can be stored as insoluble polysaccharides (starch)
silent mutation
A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.
Echinodermata
radially symmetrical marine invertebrates including e.g. starfish and sea urchins and sea cucumbers
Pancreas
secretion of insulin and glucagon (pancreatic amylase)
Epidermis
outermost layer of skin
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight or flight)
posterior pituitary gland
the posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus; antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
papillary layer
outer layer of the dermis, directly beneath the epidermis. contains loose connective tissue
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
Platyhelminthes
flatworms
Overpopulation
The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living.
Progesterone
A steroid hormone produced by the ovaries which acts with estrogen to bring about the menstral cycle and prepares the uterus for implantation of zygote
point mutation
gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed
length of sarcomere
Z line to Z line, includes areas of overlapping thick and thin filaments
Arthropods
A group of organisms that have jointed appendages, an exoskeleton, bilateral symmetry, and reproduce sexually; insects, arachnids, millipedes and cenitpedes, and crustaceans, compound eyes
FSH
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads. In females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles (oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
recticular layer
deepest skin layer; contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called Pacinian corpuscles
pinocytotic vessicle
membrane caves in then pinches off into the cytoplasm
Section 2
(50 cards)
Angiosperms
A flowering plant which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary.
Unequal division of cytoplasm
production of egg cells
ecological niche
no two species can occupy the same niche simultaneously, an organism's niche includes all of its interspecies interactions, a species can be defined by the niche it inhabits, species can evolve as a result of competition over a niche
Xylem
vascular tissue that carries water upward from the roots to every part of a plant
where does growth of bone occur
cartilaginous cells at the end of the long bone
At optimal light levels for photosynthesis
red and blue
genetic code is degenerate
more than one base combination can code for a single amino acid
Rhodophyta
red algae
Loop of Henle
section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine
Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
protein synthesis in prokaryotes
Translation and transcription take place in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes
Calvin Cylce
light-independent reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugar
Exocytosis
a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.
parthogenesis
reproduction that consists of only females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs
lambda phage
bacteria virus used as vector, storage package for DNA that is going to be sequenced
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
A peptide, stimulates the thyroid to release T3 and T4 via the second messenger system using cAMP. Increases thyroid cell size, number, and the rate of T3 and T4 secretion. Also called thyrotropin.
collecting duct
A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream.
Dark Cycle
the part of photosynthesis that does not require light; splits the CO2 and produces the C6H12O6
Tracheophytes
vascular plants
B cells
can perform differentiation into memory cells, plasma membrane, affinity for T lymphocyte antigen, expression of immunoglobulin
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Histones
Globular protein that assist in DNA packaging in eukaryotes. Histones form octamers around which DNA is wound to form a nucleosome.
classical conditioning
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
Morula
A solid ball of cells that makes up an embryo; in humans, this stage occurs within four days of fertilization.
gastrula
An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
Gymnosperms
A plant that produces seeds that are exposed rather than seeds enclosed in fruits
fallopian tubes
where fertilization takes place
Pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.
distal convoluted tubule
Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium
Fertilization
the action or process of fertilizing an egg, female animal, or plant, involving the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
An endomembrane system covered with ribosomes where many proteins for transport are assembled.
myeloid stem cells
give rise to red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and platelets
Myxomycota
slime molds
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.
lytic cycle
A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
Phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
An endomembrane system where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.
Blastula
The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development
somatic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
proximal convoluted tubule
first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host (binary fission)
Cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
Bryophyta
mosses
Uterus
womb
light cycle
in this phase of photosynthesis trapped energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy.
Components of blood
plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
plant leaf
made up of spongy layer and palisade layer
Section 3
(50 cards)
Centrioles
Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only
Modern theory of evolution
anaerobic respiration evolved first
Vasopressin
promotes water retention
Myelin
increases conduction velocity by only allowing ion movement at the nodes of ranvier
Role of Ca2+ in muscle contraction
Binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin, so that myosin heads can bind to actin
It is involved in the process of transcription
RNA polymerase, promoter regions
wobble hypothesis
Ability of the tRNAs to recognize more than one codon; the codons differ in their third nucleotide.
Telophase I (Meiosis)
2 nuclei form and cytokinesis occurs
Hormones secreted in the thyroid gland
Thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin
bone marrow
A soft tissue inside the bone that produces blood cells
Cervix
The opening to the uterus
largest taxon
kingdom
salivery amylase
enzyme found in the mouth and duodenum used for starch breakdown;
determinate cleavage
A type of embryonic development in protostomes that rigidly casts the developmental fate of each embryonic cell very early.
appendix
A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity.
promoter region
A regulatory region a short distance upstream from the 5' end of a transcription start site that acts as the binding site for RNA polymerase. A region of DNA to which RNA polymerase binds in order to initiate transcription.
Autolysis
self-destruction of cells; decomposition of all tissues by enzymes of their own formation without microbial assistance
RNA polymerase
Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription
Interphase (Mitosis)
parent cell's chromosomes are replicated resulting in 2N numbers of sister chromatids
alpha cells of pancreas
reduction in the degradation of protein and fat, decreased glycogenolysis, and decreased gluconeogenesis
Pyrimidines
cytosine, thymine, uracil (1 ring)
distance between linked genes
probability of crossing over
jejunum
absorption of nutrients
Metaphase I (Meiosis)
Tetrads are lined up at the metaphase plate; Spindle fibers attach
Glucocorticoids
raises blood sugar levels (glucose)
Prophase I (Meiosis)
Crossing over occurs
cyanobacteria
has a cell wall, photosynthetic pigment, mitochondria
basal metabolism disorder
impairment of thyroid (thyroxin)
highest frequency of crossover
the further apart two genes are
growth hormone
stimulation of sarcomere hypertrophy, promotion of amino acid uptake and protein synthesis in muscle tissue, stimulation of bone and cartilage growth, promotion of lipid mobilization and catabolism
Purine
Adenine and Guanine (2 rings)
Cytokenis
the division of the cytoplasm to form two seperate daughter cells after mitosis
Krebs cycle
occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, linked to glycolysis by pyruvate, citrate is an intermediate, produces nucleotides such as NADH and FADH2, regeneration of oxaloacetate
duodenum
involved in digestion; sucrase, dipeptidase, maltase
Cephalochordata (lancelets)
Basal chordates; marine suspension feeders that exhibit four key derived characters of chordates
Insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues
red blood cells
non-nucleated and cannot repair themselves
ileum (small intestine)
Upper part of the intestine where digestion is completed and nutrients are absorbed by the blood
heart valves opened and closed in systole
aortic and pulmonary valves are opens mitral and tricuspid valves are closed
blood platelets
Begins process of coagulation/clotting (thrombocytes)
Anaphase I (Meiosis)
disjunction occurs
Mineralocorticoids
Promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys
Transcription
synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template
Lipids
Long term food storage for animals
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
indeterminate cleavage
A type of embryonic development in deuterostomes, in which each cell produced by early cleavage divisions retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.
white blood cells (leukocytes)
innate capacity to recognize and differentiate any foreign material
DNA polymerase
Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule
Function of bones
formation of blood cells, protection of vital organs, framework for movement
Neurons in Autonomic Nervous System
control blood pressure
Section 4
(50 cards)
action potential
Saprophytic
relationship in which an organism obtains its nourishment from dead organic matter
non-membrane bound organelles
ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome, proteasomes
chief cells
produce pepsinogen
prophase I
The chromosomes condense, and the nuclear envelope breaks down. crossing-over occurs.
Cerebrum
Area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
An action potential releases neurotransmitter from a neuron by opening which of the following channels
Melatonin
amino acid hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.
Calvin Cycle
reduction, carbon fixation, NADPH consumption, ribulose regeneration
Endorphin
Peptide hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and may be associated with feelings of pain or pleasure; mimicked by opioid drugs such as morphine, heroin, opium, and codeine.
excitatory neurotransmitters
Cause depolarization of postsynaptic membranes Promote action potentials
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
Osteoclasts are
cells that break down bone matrix
Cerebellum
balance, coordination, movement
oxidative phosphorylation
occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, oxygen gas is the final electron acceptor, 2 ATP are produced per FADH2, it involves a cytochrome electron transport chain
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
symport
A membrane transport process that carries two substances in the same direction across the membrane.
Calcitonin
a peptide hormone Lowers blood calcium levels
The synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion is accompanied by the flow of
protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane
Parasitism
A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed
mucous cells
produce bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect the stomach
secondary oocyte
formed shortly before ovulation
reticular activating system
the part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
environmental rhythms
maintained by environmental stimuli (ex. traffic light signals)
pancreatic enzymes
digestive proteins found in pancreatic secretions that breakdown all organic nutrients; works in basic environment
early developmental stages
egg can be fertilized within 12-24 hours after ovulation if more than one egg is fertilized, fraternal twins may be conceived identical twins occur when one zygote divides into two separate embryos
parthenogenesis
involves eggs but does not require gamete combination from separate parents
Notochord
long supporting rod that runs through a chordate's body just below the nerve cord
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Products per glucose 6 NADH 2 FADH2 2 GTP 4 CO2 4H+ 2 CoA
process in Fertilization
estrogen is released by the corpus luteum, progesterone is secreted by the corpus lute, levels of human chorionic gonadotropin increase, fertilization membrane forms and prevents multiple fertilization
resting membrane potential of neuron
Na+/K+ ATPase
antiport
A membrane transport process that carries one substance in one direction and another in the opposite direction.
gallbladder (bile) function
digestion of lipid
Osteoblasts
bone forming cells
parietal cells
secrete HCl and intrinsic factor; cleaves pepsinogen to pepsin and intrinsic factor helps in the proper absorption of vitamin B12
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
random mating, large population, no migration, lack of mutation, no natural selection
G0 phase
A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.
Endosymbiosis
symbiosis in which one of the symbiotic organisms lives inside the other.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
Behavior Cycles
Many animals respond to periodic changes in the environment with daily or seasonal cycles of behavior
fixed action pattern
a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
Prolactin
Peptide hormone released by anterior pituitary which promotes lactation.
cholesterol in the membrane
a lipid embedded in the phospholipid bilayer that helps maintain fluidity of the membrane, especially in cold temperatures
Interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases
Myelin on axons functions to
speed the rate of impulse conduction and insulate neighboring axons from one another.
Pepsin
An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins; works in acidic environment
M phase
The phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
Path of long chain fatty acid from small intestine to the blood stream
mucosal cell -> lacteal -> thoracic duct
Hormones
they are transported by the circulatory system, they bind to receptors on target cells, they are secreted by endocrine glands, they can affect organs of the body that are far removed from their site of synthesis
Section 5
(50 cards)
heart beat is initiated
sinoatrial node
Euchromatin
a region of DNA that is uncoiled and undergoing active transcription into RNA
relationship between glucagon and insulin
produced by islets of langerhans cells, mutually antagonistic in their behavior, glucagon causes an elevation in the level of serum glucose Insulin causes a decrease in the level of serum glucose
what occurs immediately after birth
production of adult hemoglobin, resistance in the pulmonary arteries decreases, pressure in the left atrium increases, pressure in both the inferior vena cava and right atrium decreases, the ductus arterioles constricts
Archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls that do not contain peptidoglycan; live in extreme heat and pressure
respiratory system
ciliated nasal membranes warm, moisten, filer inspired air contraction of the diaphragm enlarges the thoracic cavity when the thoracic cavity enlarges, the pressure of air within the lungs falls when the pressure of air within the lungs is less than the atmospheric pressure, air will flow into of the lungs
Interkinesis
Period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II during which no DNA replication takes place.
Ovulation
rise in estrogen during the follicular phase, which is characterized by regrowth of the endometrium
morphogen
Morphogen is a chemical substance released by organizer cells that moves form one tissue to the target tissue, helping with induction in a developing embryo.
atrioventricular node
a node of specialized heart muscle located in the septal wall of the right atrium
pleiotropy
A single gene having multiple effects on an individuals phenotype
function of dialysis (kidney)
removes waste product from blood remove excess water from blood reabsorption of essential substances
polar bodies
cells with little more than DNA that are eventually broken down (female meiosis)
telophase I
Cytoplasm divides, 2 daughter cells are formed
Gastrulation
In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.
where are ribosome synthesized
ribosome
DNA
pentose sugar is deoxygenated at the 2' carbon, utilizes the nucleotide base thymine, double stranded, DNA is found in the nucleus
rainforest biome
year round warmth and high rainfall levels. almost all lie near the equator in South America, central Africa and southern Asia
muscle contraction requires overlap of what segment of sarcomere
thick and tin filaments
cells that secretes large quantities of protein
abundance of rough ER, large golgi apparatus, prominent nucleoli
Desert Biome
very little rainfall with soils rich in minerals but poor in nutrients. temperature, elevation, and latitude can vary greatly
Codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.
Aminopeptidase
An enzyme found within the small intestine that splits off one amino acid at a time, beginning at the opposite end of the polypeptide containing a free carboxyl group.
increasing CO2 in body
breathing into a bag, breathing through a straw, An IV drip of bicarbonate, taking shallower breaths
structure that produces testosterone
cells of leydig
Secretin
Digestive hormone that stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize acid in duodenum.
teratogen
any factor that can cause a birth defect
multiple alleles
three or more forms of a gene that code for a single trait (human blood group)
taiga biome
coniferous forests that have long, cold winters. the trees have needles instead of broad leaves.
synapsis
homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine
difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes
eukaryotic ribosomes are made of different types of subunits
Grassland Biome
low rainfall (10 - 30 in yr); provides no shelter for herbivorous mammals from carnivorous predators so animals that do inhabit grasslands have developed long legs and many are hoofed (better running)
portal system
blood flows through two consecutive capillary networks before returning to the heart
metaphase I
Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell.
Epistasis
A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.
Chondrocytes
Cells that secrete cartilage.
Protista
photosynthetic, free-living, movement by flagella, spend part of their life cycles inside insects
spongy bone
Layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and found just inside the layer of compact bone; bony spicules and yellow marrow
aspects of soil
pH, minerals, texture, clay content
decrease ovarian sensitiivity
estrogen and progesterone levels drop and the endometrium atrophies
large intestine
water absorptions
Osteon
basic unit of compact bone
Lamellae
Concentric rings made up of groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix
small intestine
glucose absorption
anaphase I
Homologous chrmosomes move to the oppisite poles of the cell.
lacteals
absorptions chylomicrons, vitamin E
final enzyme of the electron transport chain
oxygen
temperate biome
climate between the Tropics and polar zone; often called deciduous forests, most of the trees lose their leaves in the winter
Enterokinase
converts trypsinogen to trypsin
bacteriophage injects to bacteria
DNA
Section 6
(40 cards)